with infants a way has been shown of making it a means of developing and cultivating faculties, which but for it would be dormant till a later period.

The following exposition by Mr. Dunning sets forth the ground occupied and the practices commended by this society:"Arithmetic is a subject which, if properly treated, can hardly be over-rated in its utility as an instrument of mental culture, and in its importance to the business of life. It is also the subject I would choose to illustrate some of the finest principles of Pestalozzi. Indeed, we are told that the ability which his pupils displayed on this subject, especially on mental arithmetic, was one of the chief means by which the notice of the public was attracted to his experiments.

Arithmetic is a powerful means of developing and strengthening several powers of the mind: for instance, it promotes concentrated and sustained attention: the processes of mental arithmetic improve the memory, or, rather what we may call tenacity of mind, by requiring the question to be remembered whilst the answer is being discovered; by requiring the several numbers to be retained in the mind, whilst they are being worked; and the mind to hold the distant links of a chain whilst engaged with those nearer. It also affords early and appropriate exercise for the judgment; it cultivates the powers of abstraction and generalization, and furnishes ground on which the reasoning powers may first be called into exercise.

Arithmetic is also valuable from the habits of mind which it induces, as accuracy, activity and readiness, clearness and precision; and the habit of forming correct and precise judgments on one subject prepares the mind to form similar judgments on others, and thus the mind is educated. In a moral point of view also it acts beneficially, for the habit of making correct and accurate statements promotes the love of truth. Weak characters are often false because their intellectual vision is indistinct, but those who are accustomed to the precision that arithmetical calculations require, and have been trained to habits of comparison, fixedness of attention, and searching for truth, are likely to carry such habits and principles into their moral dealings; at least they will be better prepared to receive the moral lessons of the Christian educator.

Arithmetic, too, has advantages above every other study; it affords the teacher the opportunity of judging whether the pupils have really and effectively been at work, from the certainty of its results. They must be either right or wrong without dispute; he is able also to estimate the amount of work done, and he can superintend more individual efforts at this than at almost any other lesson. Again, no study affords the teacher a better opportunity of carrying out right principles of teaching such as

making the child work and not the teacher, leading the pupil from what he knows to the proximate truth, and thus carry out the principle of proceeding from the known to the unknown, from the simple to the complex, from the particular to the general, from the example to the rule.

Arithmetic should be taught early. Dr. Mayo observes, "the obvious connexion with the circumstances surrounding the child, the simplicity of its data, the clearness and certainty of its processes, the neatness and indisputable correctness of its results, show how well it is adapted both for the young and for minds of limited structure. There is, however, no subjects in which, in the first step particularly, it is more important that the teacher should exercise patience, and endeavour to throw himself into the mind of the child, and actually realize to himself what is going on within the little being whom he is instructing, for whilst arithmetic is the simplest of all sciences, it is possessed of its peculiar difficulties, and these present themselves especially at first starting; and although it is true that conquering difficulties is the very means by which tone and vigour are given to the mind of a child, yet these difficulties should not be too great -his way should be smoothed, and he should be encouraged and stimulated gradually to ascend the hill.

On this point De Morgan well observes. "It is a very common notion that this subject is easy; that is, a child is called stupid who does not receive his first notions of number with facility; this, we are convinced, is a mistake. Were it otherwise, savage nations would acquire a numeration and a power of using it, at least proportional to their actual wants, which is not the case. Is the mind by nature nearer the use of its powers than the body? If not, let parents consider how many efforts are unsuccessfully made before a single articulate sound is produced, and how imperfectly it is done after all, and let them extend the same ir dulgence, and, if they will, the same admiration to the rude essays of the thinking faculty, which they are so ready to bestow upon those of the speaking power. Unfortunately the two cases are not equally interesting; the first attempts of the infant in arms to pronounce Papa' and 'Mamma,' though as much like one language as another, are received with exultation as the promise of a future Demosthenes; but the subsequent discoveries of the little arithmetician, such as that six and four make thirteen, eight, seven-anything but ten-far from giving visions of the Lucasian or Savilian chairs, are considered tiresome, and are frequently rewarded with charges of stupidity or inattention. In the first case the child is teaching himself by imitation and always succeeds; in the second, it is the parent or teacher who instructs and who does not always succeed, or deserve to succeed. Irritated or wearied by this failure, little manifestations of

6

temper often take the place of the gentle tone with which the lesson commenced, by which the child, whose perception of such a change is very acute, is thoroughly cowed and discouraged, and left to believe that the fault was his own, when it really was that of his instructor."

Lecture-Room Notes.

ENGLISH SYNTAX.

Subordinate Combination of Sentence with Sentence.

Complementary Adverbial Sentences.-Having considered Adverbial Sentences of PLACE and of TIME, we have now only two classes to study, and our examination of English Syntax will be at an end. These are Adverbial Sentences of CAUSE and CONSEQUENCE, and Adverbial Sentences of MoOD.

Under the term CAUSAL we shall include

(1) Sentences which contain the Cause (strictly so called) of the action in the Principal Sentence.

(2) Those which express the Condition by which that action is limited. (3) Those which express a Concession.

(1) Strictly Causal Sentences are introduced by that either fol-
lowing an assertion; or following an interrogation, and
introducing the reason for the question; or following a com-
parative by For, for that. Because.
Because. In that. As, foras-
much as, inasmuch as. Now, since. Seeing, considering (that).

My soul is full of woe, that blood should sprinkle me to make me

grow.

Where be these warders, that they wait not here?

God shall forgive you Coeur-de-Lion's death

The rather, that you give his offspring life.

And, for our coffers are grown somewhat light,

We are enforced to farm our royal realm.

I'll requite thy kindness, for that it made my imprisonment a pleasure.

Freely we serve, because we freely love.

I extol his fortune, in that he has a son so virtuous.

My eldest son George was bred at Oxford, as I intended him for

one of the learned professions.

Forasmuch as the thirst is intolerable, the patient may be allowed some drink.

I regret this the more, inasmuch as I may not yield the palm to

Then, seeing 'twas he that made you depose,

Your oath, my lord, is vain and frivolous.

Considering 'twas dark and rainy, I am arrived in pretty fair case.

(2) Conditional sentences are introduced by If, and, an', and if, an if. So. On condition, conditionally (that). In case (that). Pro

vided (that). Say, suppose. Unless, 'less. But (that).
Without. Save, saving (that). Except, excepting (that).
Though, after as. Or the condition is expressed by merely
inverting the position of Subject and Predicate.

If you have tears, prepare to shed them now.
Corporal Nym, and thou wilt be friends, be friends.
An I do not, call me villain.

It cannot be an if thou wert his mother.

Let 'em war, so we be conquerors.

I'll do it upon condition thou wilt swear allegiance.

In case we are surprised, keep by me.

Provided that the deductions are logical, they are indifferent about the truth.

But say I were to be hanged, I could never be hanged for anything with more pleasure.

What's a tall man, unless he fight?

I'll die, but they have hid him in the house.

Id have stabbed him, but that I scorn to let forth so mean a spirit.

Thieves are not judged, but they are by to hear.

You will not enjoy health, without you use much exercise.

Dark was the room, save that a taper shed a glimmering light.

I will keep quiet enough, except I be provoked.

It was a fine morning, excepting that it had snowed the night before.
He looked as though the speed of thought were in his limbs.

Were Richelieu dead, his power were mine.

What was to become of them should their provision fail?

(3) Concessive sentences are introduced by Though, although. If. Albeit, howbeit (that). Notwithstanding. Whether-or. A concession may also be expressed by inverting the position of Subject and Predicate: or by using a Pronoun or Adverb compounded with ever, soever. Sometimes also a sentence which in strictness is a modal sentence, expresses a concession.

Though thou liv'st and breath'st, yet art thou slain in him.
Although he felt very anxious, he said nothing that night.
If the devil come and roar for them, I will not send them.
Albeit we swear a voluntary zeal, yet, believe me, I am not glad.
The Moor, howbeit that I endure him not, is of a noble nature.

And you did wisely, notwithstanding she is the greatest beauty in the parish.

Your image follows me, whether I wake or sleep.

Were I disposed, I could not gratify you.

None can hear him, cry he ne'er so loud.

Will you will you, I will marry you.

I think it very insulting, whatever it may be. ́

Howe'er it be, it seems to me 'tis only noble to be good.

How in my words soever she be shent,

To give them seals never, my soul, consent.

We wish to avail ourselves of the interest, transient as it may be, which we have excited.

The Nonconformists, rigorously as she treated them, have always venerated her memory.

Under the term Adverbial Sentences of CONSEQUENCE are included such as express the Consequence (strictly so called) which follows from the action in the Principal Sentence, as its Cause; and also such as express the End or Object of that action.

(1) Sentences which express Consequence are generally introduced by That (That not after a negative statement) either standing alone, or following a correlative demonstrative, as So, so much, such, that, in the Principal Sentence. In the latter case As often in older writers, and As that in modern writers takes the place of That. So sometimes slips over into the dependent sentence, and insomuch is found in the same position.

The birds their notes renew, and bleating herds
Attest their joy, that hill and valley rings,

We never met that we didn't fight and scratch.

The roads were so bad that few travellers ever visited it.

His misery was such that al! were moved to tears.

They vociferate to that degree, that a pack of wolves would be music to them.

The peril of our curses light on thee

So heavy, as thou shalt not shake them off.

Is there such a depravity in man as that he should injure another without benefit to himself?

He will be here to-day; so that I protest I shall be teased out of my life.

Mr. Pinch was particularly struck by the itinerant cutlery, insomuch that he purchased a pocket knife with seven blades.

(2) Sentences which express the End or object are introduced by That, so that, in order that, to the end (that). For that, for. When negative they are usually introduced by Lest.

He separated his forces, that he might divide the attention of the

enemy.

I shifted my chair, so that I might get a better view.