on their learned disputations, the self-conceited Chinese where they traffic in their shops or on their boats, where they dress their gardens or cultivate their tea, or where they crowd their temples or meditate in their schools of philosophy.

The design of all this is to exhibit the spirit with which Geography should be taught. The teacher must of course adapt his instruction to the age of the pupils and the circumstances of the class.

SIXTH CLASS OF LESSONS.-On the Classification of Geographical Facts. To primary classes learning Geography there can only be imparted with much hope of success a knowledge of individual facts. Such facts must be chosen as will interest them, and their tenacious memories will not suffer them to be forgotten. As soon, however, as pupils enter upon the study of the minuter details of Geography, the teacher must aid their powers of recollection by a carefully arranged outline of classification. In the study of the detailed Geography of a particular country, it is not best to consider the facts to be learned in any order in which they may chance to present themselves, but they should be grouped together in classes. With such an outline of classification before him, the pupil could collect his matter and recite it, much more perfectly than it would be possible for him to do otherwise. He would also be likely to retain it longer in his memory. Many of our Geographical text-books are defective in their classifications. The following distribution of the object-matter of Geography will be found to answer the end now contemplated:

1. Boundaries.

2. Extent and divisions.

3. General character of the surface.

4. Internal waters.

5. Nature of the soil and climate.

6. Productions.

7. Cities and towns.

8. Facilities for internal communication.

9. The inhabitants.

10. Government, religion, science and art, education.

11. Miscellaneous facts.

At recitation, each pupil should be expected to reproduce the information he has collected respecting a particular country, and arranged under these respective classes. He need not be confined to the text-book in making preparation.

But the preceding classification is not broad enough to satisfy a teacher in the higher departments of Geography. The same principle should be so extended as to embrace the various Geographical facts relating to all countries. Mountains, rivers, islands, lakes, rocks, soils, climates, currents, winds, animals, plants, and men admit of classification. Indeed, it is impossible to study them thoroughly without it. If studied only as they appear in particular countries, the information gained will be comparatively of little value. Besides, the best way for advanced pupils to study the extent of countries, the population of cities, the length of rivers. kinds of religion, stages of civilization, and forms of government, is by comparison and classification

For beginners in Geography, the particular should always precede the general; but for advanced pupils the general may precede the particular, for they will possess sufficient knowledge to appreciate principles, and principles will guide them in further study.

It will be understood from what has been said that teachers of Geography ought not to be satisfied with a mere accumulation of disconnected facts, but they should lead their pupils to combine them into well-arranged classes and systems.

SEVENTH CLASS OF LESSONS.-On the General Laws which govern Geographical Facts.-Having found the facts of Geography and classed them, learners must be set upon the search for their causes. The form of the earth must be demonstrated, and its motions. must be explained. The causes must be investigated that have tended to shape the continental masses, heaved up mountains, formed islands, scooped out valleys, graded plains, covered deserts with sand, and varied the nature of soils; that drive forward the ocean currents, swell the tides, determine the courses and cut out the beds of rivers, fill the lakes with water and keep them fresh or make them salt; that temper the weather, move the winds, distribute the rain, bring hail, snow, and dew, and build up and float away great bergs of ice; that adapt plants and animals to the countries in which they are found, and even modify the races of men; that control the employments of the people, inducing those of some nations to engage in manufacturing, some in farming, some in mining, and others in commerce, fix the boundaries of states, foment war

and keep peace, point out the locations for the founding of cities, the building of railroads, and the construction of bridges, and exert an influence upon government, the manners and customs of the people, science, art, education, and religion. This is a most inviting field; and the thoughtful teacher may find in it reasons so simple that a child may understand them, and principles so complicated that none but a mind like that of Humboldt could evolve them.

In teaching pupils to make inductions, they must be brought to compare the known with the unknown, by means of explanations, illustrations, and experiments. Finding out the reasons of things generally furnishes so much pleasure to learners, that the most the teacher will have to do is to provide a fit opportunity for the exercise of their reasoning powers, and they will gladly use them-and use them to some purpose. A text-book may state general principles and present a sufficient number of facts to prove them; but the pupil should be required to make an application of these prin iples in explaining new phenomena and solving new problems.

CHAPTER V.

INSTRUCTION IN THE RATIONAL SCIENCES.

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THOSE who understand the sciences of which we have thus far treated can scarcely have failed to observe that they start out by taking something for granted, that they make no attempt to account for the ultimate premises upon which they base their conclusions.

The sciences relating to Language treat of the elements of speech and their relations; but every principle of these sciences may be traced back to laws of thought, and these again rest upon certain intuitions of the Reason.

The Formal Sciences confessedly erect their superstructure upon a foundation of definitions and axioms, the nature of which they do not pretend to investigate. Mathematicians merely state the definitions and axioms which relate to Mathematics; Logicians often enlarge somewhat upon those which relate to Logic, but merely as an introduction to the subject proper. Logic treats of the laws of thought, the treatment of the elements of thought belongs elsewhere.

The Empirical Sciences rest also upon a basis of definitions and axioms. Not a single observation can be made, class formed, or inference drawn without the aid of principles which no Inductive Philo

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