It appears, therefore, that not the actual exercise of Fallacy of reason, but reason in capacity, ought to be included in his docthe complex conception to which we give the specific trine rename of man, as some of the greatest men that ever lived specting the human have been during parts of their lives deprived of the species, power of actual reasoning. This, however, it will be said, does not remove the difficulty; for the occasional exercise of reason in lunatics, and the great exertions of it in such men as Swift and Marlborough, show that they had it in capacity at all times; whereas we have no evidence that changelings have even a capacity of reasoning at any time, since they never do a rational action, nor ever utter a sentence to the purpose. That we have no direct and positive evidence of the minds of changelings being capable of reasoning, were they supplied with proper organs, must be granted; but the probabilities of their being so are many and great. We know by experience that the actual exercise of reason may be interrupted by an occasional and accidental pressure on the brain and therefore we cannot doubt but that if this pressure were rendered permanent by any wrong configuration of the skull given to it in the womb, or in the act of being born into the world, an infant, with a mind capable of reasoning by means of proper organs, would by this accident be rendered, through the whole of life, an idiot or changeling. That idiotism is caused by such accidents, and is not the quality of an inferior mind occasionally given to a human body, will at least seem probable from the following considerations.

7

True doctrine.

It does not appear that an animal body can live and move but while it is actuated by some mind. Whence then does the unborn infant derive its mind? It must be either immediately from God, or ex traduce from its parents; but if the mind of man be immaterial, it cannot be ex traduce. Now, as idiots are very few in number when compared with the rational part of the human species, and as God in the government of this world acts not by partial but by general laws; we must conclude that the law which he has established respecting the union of mind and matter, is, that human bodies shall be animated with minds endowed with a capacity of reasoning, and that those who never exert this capacity are prevented by some such accident as we have assigned.

For a further account of qualities, why they are supposed to inhere in some subject, together with the usual distinction between the primary and secondary qualities of matter, see METAPHYSICS, Part II. chap. i.

Chemical QUALITIES, those qualities principally introduced by means of chemical experiments, as fumigation, amalgamation, cupellation, volatilization, precipitation, &c.

QUALITY, is also used for a kind of title given to certain persons, in regard of their territories, signiories, or other pretensions.

QUANGA. See CAPRA. QUANG-PING-FOU, a city in China, is situated in the northern part of the province of Pe-tcheli, between the provinces of Chang-tong and Ho-nan, and has nine cities of the third class dependent on it; all its plains are well watered by rivers. Among its temples, there 3

is one dedicated to those men who, as these Chinese Quangpretend, discovered the secret of rendering themselves ping.to immortal. Quantity

QUANGSI, a province of China, bounded on the north by Koe-Tcheau and Hu-Quang; on the east, by Yunan and Quantong; on the south, by the same and Tonquin; and on the west, by Yun-nan. It produces great plenty of rice, being watered by several large rivers; and contains 10,000,000 of inhabitants. southern part is a flat country, and well cultivated; but the northern is full of mountains covered with trees. It contains mines of all sorts; and there is a gold mine lately opened. The capital town is Quie-ling.

The

A very singular tree, says Grosier, grows in this province; instead of pith, it contains a soft pulp, which yields a kind of flour: the bread made of it is said to be exceedingly good. Besides paroquets, hedgehogs, porcupines, and rhinoceroses, a prodigious number of wild animals, curious birds, and uncommon insects, are found here. This province contains 12 cities of the first class, and 80 of the second and third. See CHINA, SUPPLEMENT.

QUANG-TONG, a province of China, bounded on the east by Kiang-si and Fokien; on the south, by the ocean; and on the west, by Tonquin. This province is diversified by valleys and mountains; and yields two crops of corn in a year. It abounds in gold, jewels, silk, pearls, tin, quicksilver, sugar, brass, iron, steel, saltpetre, ebony, and several sorts of odoriferous wood; besides fruits of all sorts proper to the climate. They have a prodigious number of ducks, whose eggs they hatch in ovens; and a tree, whose wood is remarkably hard and heavy, and thence called iron-wood. The mountains are covered with a sort of osiers which creep along the ground, and of which they make baskets, hurdles, matts, and ropes.

Although the climate of this province is warm, the air is pure, and the people are robust and healthy. They are very industrious; and it must be allowed that they possess in an eminent degree the talent of imitation: if they are only shown any of our European works, they execute others like them with the most surprising exactness. This province suffered much during the civil wars; but at present it is one of the most flourishing in the empire; and, as it is at a great distance from court, its government is one of the most important. This province is divided into ten districts, which contain ten cities of the first class, and 84 of the second and third. Canton is the capital town.

QUANTITY, as explained by the great English Quantity lexicographer, is that property of any thing which may be increased or diminished. This interpretation of the word is certainly just, and for the purposes of common conversation it is sufficiently determinate; but the man of science may expect to find in a work like ours a definition of the thing signified. This, however, cannot be given him. A logical definition consists of the genus under which the thing defined is ranked, and the specific difference (see LOGIC, N° 20, &c.); but quantity is ranked under no genus. In that school where such definitions were most valued, it was considered as one of the ten categories, or general conceptions, under which all the objects of human apprehension were mustered, like soldiers in an army (see CATEGORY and PHILOSOPHY, No 22.). On this account, even Aristotle

bimself,

e

e.

ity himself, who delighted in definitions, and was not easily deterred from a favourite pursuit, could not consistently with his own rules attempt to define quantity. He characterizes it, however, in several parts of his works : V and particularly in the 15th chapter of the 4th book of his metaphysics, where he gives the following account of the three first categories: Ταύτα μεν γαρ, ως μια ѝ όμοια δ' ων ή ποιδης μια ισα δε, ων το ποσον ἐν. Things are the same of which the SUBSTANCE is one; similar, of which the QUALITY is one; equal, of which the QUANTITY is one. Again, he tells us, that the chief dit. characteristic of quantity is, that it may be denominated equal and unequal.

ect

66

ουσία.

*

which it has performed, have procured it a most respect- Quantity. able place in the circle of the sciences. Ingenious men have availed themselves of this pre-eminence of mathematics, and have endeavoured to procure respect for their disquisitions on other subjects, by presenting them to the public as branches of mathematical science, and therefore susceptible of that accuracy and certainty which are its peculiar boast. Our moral affections, our sensations, our intellectual powers, are all susceptible of augmentation and diminution, are conceivable as greater and less when stated together, and are familiarly spoken of as admitting of degrees of comparison. We are perfectly well understood when we say that one pain, heat, grief, kindness, is greater than another; and as this is the distinguishing characteristic of quantity, and as quantity is the subject of mathematical discussion, we suppose that these subjects may be treated mathematically. Accordingly, a very celebrated and excellent philosopher has said, among many things of the same * Dr Frankind, that the greatness of a favour is in the direct cis Hutchincompound ratio of the service performed and the dig- 4 nity of the performer, and in the inverse ratio of the me- Which is rit and rank of the receiver; that the value of a cha- improperly racter is in the compound ratio of the talents and virtue, introduced &c.; and he has delivered a number of formal ргороsitions on the most interesting questions in morals, couched in this mathematical language, and even expressed by algebraic formulae. But this is merely play, and conveys no instruction. We understand the words; they contain no absurdity; and in as far as they have a sense, we believe the propositions to be true. But they give no greater precision to our sentiments than the more usual expressions would do. If we attend closely to the meaning of any one of such propositions, we shall find that it only expresses some vague and indistinct notions of degrees of those emotions, sentiments, or qualities, which would be just as well conceived by means of the expressions of ordinary language; and that it is only by a sort of analogy or resemblance that this mathematical language conveys any notions whatever of the subjects.

That any man can become wiser by reading such descriptions as these, none but an idolater of Aristotle will suppose. There is, indeed, no periphrasis by which we can explain what is meant by quantity to those who have not previously formed such a notion.All that can be done by making the attempt is only to settle language, by stating exactly the cases in which we use this word in the greatest conformity to general custom; for there is a laxness or carelessness of expression in the language of most men, and our notions are frequently communicated by speech in a way by no means precise; so that it is often a great chance that the notions excited in the mind of the hearer are not exact counterparts of those in the mind of the speaker.

The understandings of men differ in nothing more remarkably than in their power of abstraction, and of rapidly forming conceptions so general and simple as not to be clogged with distinguishing circumstances, which may be different in different minds while uttering and hearing the same words: and it is of great consequence to a man of scientific habits, either to cultivate, if possible, this talent, or to supersede its use, by studiously forming to himself notions of the most important universals in his own course of contemplation, by careful ab straction of every thing extraneous. His language by this means becomes doubly instructive by its extreme precision; and he will even judge with greater certainty of notions intended to be communicated by the more slovenly language of another person.

We cannot say that there is much ambiguity in the general use of the term quantity: But here, as in all other cases, a love of refinement, of novelty, and frequently of vanity, and the wish of appearing ingenious and original, have made men take advantage of even the small latitude with which the careless use of the word will furnish them, to amuse themselves and the public by giving the appearance of science to empty sounds.

Mathematics is undoubtedly employed in discovering and stating many relations of quantity; and it is in this category alone that any thing is contemplated by the gmathematician, whether in geometry, arithmetic, or algebra. Hence mathematics has been called the science of quantity. The simplicity of the object of the mathematician's contemplation, and the unparalleled distinctness with which he can perceive its modifications, have enabled him to erect a body of science, eminent not only for its certainty, but also for the great length to which he can carry his reasonings without danger of error; and the intimate connection which this science bas with the arts of life, and the important services

son.

into other subjects.

5

The object of contemplation to the mathematician is The manot whatever is susceptible of greater and less, but what thematiis measurable; and mathematics is not the science of cian conmagnitude, in its most abstracted and general accepta- templates only quan tion, but of magnitude which can be measured. It is, tities that indeed the SCIENCE of MEASURE, and whatever is are meatreated in the way of mensuration is treated mathema- surable. tically. Now, in the discourse of ordinary life and ordinary men, many things are called quantities which we cannot or do not measure. This is the case in the instances already given of the affections of the mind, pleasure, pain, beauty, wisdom, honour, &c. We do not say that they are incapable of measure; but we have not yet been able to measure them, nor do we think of measuring them when we speak rationally and usefully about them. We therefore do not consider them mathematically; nor can we introduce mathematical precision into our discussions of these subjects till we can, and actually do, measure them. Persons who are precise in their expression will even avoid such phrases on these subjects as suppose, or strictly express, such measurement. We should be much embarrassed how to answer the question, How much pain does the toothache give you just now; and how much is it easier since yesterday?

lar inferences, till he can demonstrate that he has in Quantite this manner covered the whole figure by twenty appli cations, and that his moveable figure will cover no more; and he affirms that the figure is twenty times the part employed.

Quantity. yesterday? Yet the answer (if we had a measure) would be as easy as to the question, How many guineas did you win at cards? or how much land have you bought? Nay, though we say familiarly, "I know well how much such a misfortune would affect you," and are understood when we say it, it would be awkward language to say, "I know well the quantity of your grief." It is in vain, therefore, to expect mathematical precision in our discourse or conceptions of quantities in the most abstracted sense. Such precision is confined to quantity which may be and is measured (A). It is only trifling with the imagination when we employ mathematical language on subjects which have not this property.

It will therefore be of some service in science to discriminate quantities in this view; to point out what are susceptible of measure, and what are not.

Measuring What is measuring? It is one of these two things: It explained. is either finding out some known magnitude of the thing measured, which we can demonstrate to be equal to it; or to find a known magnitude of it, which being taken so many times shall be equal to it. The geometer measures the contents of a parabolic space when he exhibits a parallelogram of known dimensions, and demonstrates that this parallelogram is equal to the parabolic space. In like manner, he measures the solid contents of an infinitely extended hyperbolic spindle, when he exhibits a cone of known dimensions, and demonstrates that three of these cones are equal to the spindle.

In this process it will be found that he actually subdivides the quantity to be measured into parts of which it consists, and states these parts as actually making up the quantity, specifying each, and assigning its boundaries. He goes on with it, piece by piece, demonstrating the respective equalities as he goes along, till he has exhausted the figure, or considered all its parts. When he measures by means of a submultiple, as when he shows the surface of a sphere to be equal to four of its great circles, he stops, after having demonstrated the equality of one of these circles to one part of the surface then he demonstrates that there are other three parts, each of which is precisely equal to the one he has minutely considered. In this part of the process he expressly assigns the whole surface into its distinct portions, of which he demonstrates the equality.

But there is another kind of geometrical measurement which proceeds on a very different principle. The geometer conceives a certain individual portion of his figure, whether line, angle, surface, or solid, as known in respect to its dimensions. He conceives this to be lifted from its place, and again laid down on the adjoining part of the figure, and that it is equal to the part which it now covers; and therefore that this part together with the first is double of the first: he lifts it again, and Jays it down on the next adjoining part, and affirms that this, added to the two former, make up a quantity triple of the first. He goes on in this way, making simi

This mode is precisely similar to the manner of prac tical measurement in common life: we apply a foot-rule successively to two lines, and find that 30 applications exhaust the one, while it requires 35 to exhaust the other. We say therefore, that the one line is 30 and Euclid's the other 35 feet long; and that these two lines are to fourth preeach other in the ratio of 30 to 35. Having measured position two shorter lines by a similar application of a stick of an inch long, 30 times to the one and 35 times to the other, we say that the ratio of the two first lines is the same with that of the two last. Euclid has taken this method of demonstrating the fourth proposition of the first book of his celebrated Elements.

But all this process is a fiction of the mind, and it is the fiction of an impossibility. It is even inconceiveable, that is, we cannot in imagination make this application of one figure to another; and we presume to say, that, if the elements of geometry cannot be demonstrated in some other way, the science has not that title to pure, abstract, and infallible knowledge, which is usually allowed it. We cannot suppose one of the triangles lifted and laid on the other, without supposing it something different from a triangle in abstracto. The individuality of such a triangle consists solely in its being in the precise place where it is, and in occupying that portion of space. If we could distinctly conceive otherwise, we should perceive that, when we have lifted the triangle from its place, and applied it to the other, it is gone from its former place, and that there is no longer a triangle there. This is inconceivable, and space has always been acknowledged to be immoveable. There is therefore some logical defect in Euclid's demonstration. We apprehend that he is labouring to demonstrate, or rather illustrate, a simple apprehension. This indeed is the utmost that can be done in any demonstration (see METAPHYSICS, N° 82.): but the mode by which he guides the mind to the apprehension of the truth of his fourth proposition is not consistent either with pure mathematics or with the laws of corporeal nature. The real process, as laid down by him, seems to be this. We suppose something different from the abstract triangle; some thing that, in conjunction with other properties, has the property of being triangular, with certain dimensions of two of its sides and the included angle. It has avowedly another property, not essential to, and not contained in, the abstract notion of a triangle, viz. mobility. We also suppose it permanent in shape and dimensions, or that although, during its motion, it does not occupy the same spuce, it continues, and all its parts, to occupy an equal space. In short, our concep tion is very mixed, and does not perceptibly differ from our conception of a triangular piece of matter, where the

Quantity, the triangle is not the subject, but an adjunct, a quality. And when we suppose the application made, we are not in fact supposing two abstract triangles to coincide. This we cannot do with any thing like distinctness; for our distinct conception now is, not that of twe triangles coinciding, but of one triangle being now exactly occupied by that moveable thing which formerly occupied the other. In short, it is a vulgar measurement, restricted by suppositions which are inadmissible in all actual measurements in the present universe, in which no moveable material thing is known to be permanent, either in shape or magnitude.

This is an undeniable consequence of the principle of universal gravitation, and the compressibility of every kind of tangible matter with which we are acquainted. Remove the brass rule but one inch from its place; its gravitation to the earth and to the rest of the universe is immediately changed, and its dimensions change of consequence. A change of temperature will produce a similar effect; and this is attended to and considered in all nice mensurations. We do the best we can to assure ourselves that our rule always occupies a sensibly equal space; and we must be contented with chances of error which we can neither perceive nor remove.

We might (were this a proper place) take notice of some other logical defects in the reasoning of this celebrated proposition: but they are beside our present purpose of explaining the different modes of mathematical measurement, with the view of discovering that circumstance in which they all agree, and which (if the only one) must therefore be the characteristic of mensuration.

We think that the only circumstance in which all modes of mensuration agree, or the only notion that is found in them all, is, that the quantity is conceived as consisting of parts, distinguishable from each other, and separated by assignable boundaries; so that they are at once conceived separately and jointly. We venture to assert that no quantity is directly measured which we cannot conceive in this way, and that such quantities only are the immediate objects of mathematical contemplation, and should be distinguished by a generic name. Let them be called MATHEMATICAL QUANTITIES, EXTENSION, DURATION, NUMBER, and PROPORTION, have this characteristic, and they are the only quantities which have it. Any person will be convinced of the first assertion by attending to his own thoughts when contemplating these notions. He will find that he conceives every one of them as made up of its own parts, which are distinguishable from each other, and have assignable boundaries, and that it is only in consequence of involving this conception that they can be added to or subtracted from each other; that they can be multiplied, divided, and conceived in any proportion to each other.

He may perhaps find considerable difficulty in acquiring perfectly distinct notions of the mensurability, and the accuracy of the modes of mensuration. He will find that the way in which he measures duration is very similar to that in which he measures space or extension. He does not know, or does not attend to, any thing which hinders the brass foot-rule in his hand from continuing to occupy equal spaces during his use of it, in measuring the distance of two bodies. In like manner he selects an event which nature or art can repeat continually, and in which the circumstances which contriVOL. XVII. Part 1I.

bute to its accomplishment are invariably the same, or Quantity. their variations and their effects are insensible. He concludes that it will always occupy an equal portion of time for its accomplishment, or always last an equal time. Then, observing that, during the event whose duration he wishes to measure, this standard event is accomplished 29 times, and that it is repeated 3654 times during the accomplishment of another event, he affirms that the durations of these are in the ratio of 29 to 3651. It is thus (and with the same logical defect as in the measuring a line by a brass rod) that the astronomer measures the celestial revolutions by means of the rotation of the earth round its axis, or by the vibrations of a pendulum.

We are indebted for most of the preceding observations to Dr Reid, the celebrated author of the Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense, and of the Essays on the Intellectual and Active Powers of Man. He has published a dissertation on this subject in the 45th volume of the Philosophical Transactions, N° 489, which we recommend to our philosophical readers as a performance eminent for precision and acuteness. If we presume to differ from him in any trivial circumstance, it is with that deference and respect which is due to his talents and his

worth.

9

matical quantity.

10

not be con

Dr Reid justly observes, that as nothing has propor- Characters tion which has not either extension, duration, or num- of mathe. ber, the characters of mathematical quantity may be restricted to these three. He calls them PROPER quantities, and all others he calls IMPROPER. We believe that, in the utmost precision of the English language, this denomination is very apposite, and that the word quantity derived from quantum, always supposes measurement: But the word is frequently used in cases Other where its original is not kept in view, and we use other quantities words as synonymous with it, when all mensuration, that canwhether possible or not, is out of our thoughts. Accor- sidered mading to practice, therefore, the jus et norma loquendi, thematicalthere seems to be no impropriety in giving this name, ly. in our language at least, to whatever can be conceived as great or little. There is no impropriety in saying that the pain occasioned by the stone is greater than that of the toothache; and when we search for the category to which the assertion may be referred, we cannot find any other than quantity. We may be allowed therefore to say, with almost all our scientific countrymen, that every thing is conceivable in respect of quantity which we can think or speak of as greater and less; and that this notion is the characteristic of quantity as a genus, while measureableness is the characteristic of mathematical quantity as a species.

But do we not measure many quantities, and consider them mathematically, which have not this characteristic of being made up of their own distinguishable parts? What else is the employment of the mechanician, when speaking of velocities, forces, attractions, repulsions, magnetic influence, chemical affinity, &c. &c.? Are not these mathematical sciences? And if the precision and certainty of mathematics arise from the nature of their specific object, are not all the claims of the mechanician and physical astronomer ill-founded pretensions? These questions require and deserve a serious answer. It is most certain that we consider the notions which are expressed by these terms velocity, force, density, and 4 F the