towards or from a perpendicular to the point on which they fell. Raynal, press of Russia. At one period the British house of comRays. mons shewed him a very singular mark of respect. The speaker having been informed that Raynal was a spectator in the gallery, public business was instantly suspended, and the stranger was conducted to a more honourable situation. But when a friend of Dr Johnson's asked him respecting the same personage, "Will you give me leave, doctor, to introduce to you the abbé Raynal ?” he turned on his heel, and said, "No, sir." 66 A love of liberty was the principal trait in Raynal's character, of which he gave no proper or accurate definition in his earlier writings; but when he beheld the abuse of liberty in the progress of the French Revolution, he nobly attempted to retrieve his errors. In the month of May 1791, he addressed to the Constituent Assembly, a letter the most eloquent, argumentative, and impressive, that perhaps was ever composed upon any subject whatever. He observes among other things; "I have long dared to speak to kings of their duty; suffer me now to speak to the people of their errors, and to their representatives of the dangers which threaten us. I am, I own to you, deeply afflicted at the crimes which plunge this empire into mourning. It is true that I am to look back with horror at myself for being one of those who, by feeling a noble indignation against arbitrary power, may perhaps have furnished arms to licentiousness. Do then religion, the laws, the royal authority, and public order, demand back from philosophy and reason the ties which united them to the grand society of the French nation, as if, by exposing abuses, and teaching the rights of the people and the duties of princes, our criminal efforts had broken these ties? But, no!--never have the bold conceptions of philosophy been represented by us as the strict rule for acts of legislation." He afterwards completely proves, that it was not the business of the assembly to abolish every ancient institution; that the genius of the French people is such, that they never can be happy or prosperous but under a well regulated monarchical government; and that, if they wished not the nation to fall under the worst kind of despotism, they must increase the power of the king. Besides the works already mentioned, he was the author of "A History of the Parliament of England," &c. "History of the Stadtholderate;" "The History of the Divorce of Catharine of Arragon by Henry VIII." and a "History of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantz," in four volumes; but he committed many of his papers to the flames during the sanguinary reign of Robespierre. He was deprived of all his property duing the revolution, and died in poverty in the month of March 1796, in the 84th year of his age. RAY, in Optics, a beam of light emitted from a radiant or luminous body. See LIGHT and OPTICS. Inflected RAYS, those rays of light which, on their near approach to the edges of bodies, in passing by them, are bent out of their course, being turned either from the body or towards it. This property of the rays of light is generally termed diffraction by foreigners, and Dr Hooke sometimes called it deflection. Reflected RAYS, those rays of light which, after falling upon the body, do not go beyond the surface of it, but are thrown back again. Refracted RAYS, those rays of light which, after falling upon any medium, enter its surface, being bent either Pencil of RAYS, a number of rays issuing from a point of an object, and diverging in the form of a cone. RAZOR, a well-known instrument, used by surgeons, barbers, &c. for shaving off the hair from various parts of the body.-As shaving to many people is a most painful operation, cutlers in different countries have long applied their skill to remove that inconvenience. Some have invented soaps of a peculiar kind to make the operation more easy, and some have invented straps. With respect to razors, some artists have succeeded rather by accident than from any fixed principle; and therefore we have found great inequality in the goodness of razors made by the same artist. A correspondent assures us, that he has for 40 years past been at much pains to find out razors made by the best makers both in England and Scotland, and was fortunate enough, at last, to discover a kind made by a Scotchman of the name of Logan, which he called mag. netical razors, because they were directed to be touched with an artificial magnet before using. These, our friend assures us, are most excellent razors, and he has used them for upwards of 20 years. He says likewise that they continue in good order, without requiring to be ground; but that the great draw-back on their being generally used, is the price, which is higher than most people are able or disposed to give for that instruOur correspondent, who resides in the vicinity of London, also informs us, that lately the famous surgeon's instrument-maker, Mr Savigny in Pall Mall, after numberless experiments, in the course of above 20 years, has at length brought razors to a degree of perfection never yet equalled; and with such certainty, that the purchaser is in no danger of a disappointment, though the price is very moderate. By these, we are told, the operation of shaving is performed with greater ease, more perfectly, and more expeditiously than with any other. RE, in Grammar, an inseparable particle added to the beginning of words to double or otherwise modify their meaning; as in re-action, re-move, re-export, &c. RE-ACTION, in Physiology, the resistance made by all bodies to the action or impulse of others that endeavour to change its state whether of motion or rest, &c. READING, the art of delivering written language with propriety, force, and elegance. "We must not judge so unfavourably of eloquence or good reading (says the illustrious Fenelon), as to reckon it only a frivolous art, that a declaimer uses to impose upon the weak imagination of the multitude, and to serve his own ends. It is a very serious art, designed to instruct people; to suppress their passions and reform their manners; to support the laws, direct public councils, and to make men good and happy." Rays Reading. I less anima Reason and experience demonstrate, that delivery in Delivery in reading ought to be less animated than in interested speak-reading ing. In every exercise of the faculty of speech, and should be those expressions of countenance and gesture with which ted than in it is generally attended, we may be considered to be al- interested ways in one of the two following situations: First, de-speaking. livering our bosom sentiments on circumstances which relate to ourselves or others; or, secondly, repeating something that was spoken on a certain occasion for the 4 N 2 amusement above observed, a character not acknowledged by gene- lei Reading. amusement or information of an auditor. Now, if we observe the deliveries natural to these two situations, we shall find, that the first may be accompanied with every degree of expression which can manifest itself in us, from the lowest of sympathy to the most violent and energetic of the superior passions; while the latter, from the speaker's chief business being to repeat what he heard with accuracy, discovers only a faint imitation of those signs of the emotions which we suppose agitated him from whom the words were first.borrowed. The use and necessity of this difference of manner is evident; and if we are attentive to these natural signs of expression, we shall find them conforming with the greatest nicety to the slightest and most minute movements of the breast. Evident as the purport of this reasoning is, it has not so much as been glanced at by the writers on the subject we are now entered upon, or any of its kindred ones; which has occasioned a manifest want of accuracy in several of their rules and observations. Among the rest, this precept has been long reverberated from asthor to author as a perfect standard for propriety in reading. "Deliver yourselves in the same manner you would do, were the matter your own original sentimens uttered directly from the heart." As all kinds of delivery must have many things in common, the rule will in many articles be undoubtedly right; but, from what has been said above, it must be as certainly faulty in respect to several others; as it is certain nature never confounds by like signs two things so very different, as a copy and an original, an emanation darted immediate from the sun, and its weaker appearance in the lunar reflection. This repetition of another's words might be supposed There is another very peculiar kind of delivery some- These distinctions with regard to a speaker's situation of mind premised, let us see to which of them an author and his reader may most properly be referred, and how they are circumstanced with regard to one another. The matter of all books is, either what the author says in his own person, or an acknowledged recital of the words of others: hence an author may be esteemed both an original speaker and a repeater, according as what he writes is of the first or second kind. Now a reader must be supposed either actually to personate the author, or one whose office is barely to communicate what he has said to an auditor. But in the first of these suppositions he would, in the delivery of what is the author's own, evidently commence mimic; which being, as The precepts we have to offer for improving the above-mentioned rule, shall be delivered under the beads of accent, emphasis, modulation, expression, pauses, &c. I. Accent. In attending to the affections of the voice when we speak, it is easy to observes, that, independent of any other consideration, one part of it differs from another, in stress, energy, or force of utterance. In words we find one syllable differing from another with respect to this mode; and in sentences one more words as frequently vary from the rest in a s milar manner. This stress with regard to syllables is called accent, and contributes greatly to the variety and harmony of language. Respecting words, it is termed emphasis; and its chief office is to assist the sense, force, or perspicuity of the sentence of which new under the next head. "Accent (as described in the Lectures on Elocation) is made by us two ways; either by dwelling longer up on one syllable than the rest, or by giving it a smarter percussion of the voice in utterance. Of the first of these we have instances in the words glory, father, hay of the last in bat'tle, hab'it, bor'row. So that accent with us is not referred to tune, but to time; to qui tity, not quality; to the more equable or precipitate motion of the voice, not to the variation of the notes ar inflexions," In theatric declamation, in order to give it more pop and solemnity, it is usual to dwell longer than commen upon the unaccented syllables; and the author now quoted has endeavoured to prove (p. 51. 54) the prac tice faulty, and to show (p. 55.) that “though it (L true solemnity) may demand a slower utterance th usual, yet (it) requires that the same proportion in poist ading. of quantity be observed in the syllables, as there is in musical notes when the same tune is played in quicker or slower time." But that this deviation from ordinary speech is not a fault, as our author asserts; nay, that on the contrary it is a real beauty when kept under proper regulation, the following observations it is hoped will sufficiently prove. (I.) It is a truth of the most obvious nature, that those things which on their application to their proper senses have a power of raising in us certain ideas and emotions, are ever differently modified in their constituent parts when different effects are produced in the mind: and also (II.) that, within proper bounds, were we to suppose these constituent parts to be proportionally increased or diminished as to quantity, this effect would still be the same as to quality.-For instance: The different ideas of strength, swiftness, &c. which are raised in us by the same species of animals, is owing to the different form of their corresponding parts; the different effects of music on the passions, to the different airs and movements of the melody; and the different expressions of human speech to a difference in tone, speed, &c. of the voice. And these peculiar effects would still remain the same, were we to suppose the animals above alluded to, to be greater or lesser, within their proper bounds; the movement of the music quicker or slower, provided it did not palpably interfere with that of some other species; and the pitch of the voice higher or lower, if not carried out of the limits in which it is observed on similar occasions naturally to move. Farther (III.) since, respecting the emotions more especially, there are no rules to determine à priori what effect any particular attribute or modification of an object will have upon a percipient, our knowledge of this kind must evidently be gained from experience. Lastly, (IV.) In every art imitating nature we are pleased to see the characteristic members of the pattern heightened a little farther than perhaps it ever was carried in any real example, provided it be not bordering upon some ludicrous and disagreeable provinces of excess. Now for the application of these premisses.-To keep pace and be consistent with the dignity of the tragic muse, the delivery of her language should necessarily be dignified; and this it is plain from observation (J.) cannot be accomplished otherwise than by something different in the manner of it from that of ordinary speech; since dignity is essentially different from familiarity. But how must we discover this different manner? By attending to nature and in this case she tells us, that besides using a slower delivery, and greater distinctness of the words (which every thing merely grave requires, and gravity is a concomitant of dignity, though not its essence), we must dwell a little longer upon the unaccented syllables than we do in common. As to what our author observes in the above quotation, of dignity's only requiring a slower utterance than ordinary, while the proportion of the syllables as to quantity continues the same; it is apprehended the remark (II.) respecting quickness and slowness of movement will show it to be not altogether true. For since the delivery is not altered in form, its expression must be still of the same kind, and perhaps what may be rightly suggested by the term gravely familiar. But something farther may be yet said in defence of this artificial delivery, as our author calls it. Is not the movement of any thing, of whatever species, when Reading dignified or solemn, in general of an equable and deliberate nature (as in the minuet, the military step, &c.)? And in theatrical declamation, is not the propensity to introduce this equableness so strong, that it is almost impossible to avoid it wholly, were we ever so determined to do it? If these two queries be answered in the affirmative (as we are persuaded they will), while the first supports our argument for the propriety of the manner of delivery in question, the second discovers a kind of necessity for it. And that this manner may be carried a little farther in quantity on the stage than is usual in real life, the principle (IV.) of heightening nature will justify, provided fashion (which has ever something to do in these articles) give it a sanction; for the precise quantity of several heightenings may he varied by this great legislator almost at will. 3 II. Emphasis.-As emphasis is not a thing annexed Emphasis. to particular words, as accent is to syllables, but owes its rise chiefly to the meaning of a passage, and must therefore vary its seat according as that meaning varies, it will be necessary to explain a little farther the general idea given of it above. Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Brought death into the world, and all our woe, &c. Supposing, in reference to the above well-known lines, that originally other beings, besides men, had disobeyed the commands of the Almighty, and that the circumstance were well known to us, there would fall an emphasis upon the word man's in the first line, and hence it would be read thus: Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit, &c. But if it were a notorious truth, that mankind had transgressed in a peculiar manner more than once, the emphasis would fall on first, and the line be read, Of man's first disobedience, &c. Again, admitting death (as was really the case) to have been an unheard of and dreadful punishment brought upon man in consequence of his transgression ; on that supposition the third line would be read, Brought death into the world, &c. But if we were to suppose mankind knew there was such an evil as death in other regions, though the place they inhabited had been free from it till their transgression; the line would run thus, Brought death into the world, &c. Now from a proper delivery of the above lines, with regard to any one of the suppositions we have chosen, out of several others that might in the same manner have been imagined, it will appear that the emphasis they illustrate is effected by a manifest delay in the pronunciation, and a tone something fuller and louder than is used in ordinary; and that its office is solely to determine the meaning of a sentence with reference to something said before, presupposed by the author as general knowledge, or in order to remove an ambiguity where a passage is capable of having more senses given it than one,. But,, Reading. But, supposing in the above example, that none of (as appears by its being constantly found in the common Reading the senses there pointed out were precisely the true one, conversation of people of all kinds of capacities and deand that the meaning of the lines were no other than grees of knowledge), and the most ignorant person newhat is obviously suggested by their simple construc- ver fails of using it rightly in the effusions of his own tion; in that case it may be asked, if in reading them heart, it happens very luckily, and ought always to be there should be no word dignified with the emphatical remembered, that provided we understand what we read, accompanyments above described?-The answer is, Not and give way to the dictates of our own feeling, the emone with an emphasis of the same kind as that we have phasis of sense can scarce ever avoid falling spontanejust been illustrating; yet, it is nevertheless true, that ously upon its proper place. on hearing these lines well read, we shall find some words distinguished from the rest by a manner of delivery bordering a little upon it (A). And these words will in general be such as seem the most important in the sentence, or on other accounts to merit this distinction. But as at best it only enforces, graces, or enlivens, and not fixes the meaning of any passage, and even caprice and fashion (B) have often a hand in determining its place and magnitude, it cannot properly be reckoned an essential of delivery. However, it is of too much moment to be neglected by those who would wish to be good readers; and, for the sake of distinction, we may not unaptly denominate both the kinds of energies in question, by the terms emphasis of sense, and emphasis of force (c). Now from the above account of these two species of emphasis it will appear, "that in reading, as in speak ing, the first of them must be determined entirely by the sense of the passage, and always made alike: But as to the other, taste alone seems to have a right of fixing its situation and quantity."-Farther: Since the more essential of these to energies is solely the work of nature Here it will be necessary to say something by way of reply to a question which will naturally occur to the mind of every one. As the rule for the emphasis of sense requires we should understand what we read before it can be properly used, it is incumbent upon us never to attempt to read what we have not previously studied for that purpose? In answer to this, it must be observed, that though such a step will not be without its advantages; yet, as from the fairness of printed types, the well-known pauses of punctuation, and a long acquaintance with the phraseology and construction of our language, &c. experience tells us it is possible to comprehend the sense at the first reading, a previous perusal of what is to be read does not seem necessary to all, though, if they would wish to appear to advantage, it may be expedient to many; and it is this circumstance which makes us venture upon extemporary reading, and give it a place among our amusements.—Similar remarks might be made with regard to modulation, expres sion, &c. did not what is here observed naturally anticipate them. III. Modulation (D). Every person must have obser- Modula ved, (A) The following lines will illustrate both these kinds of stresses: For, to convey their right meaning, the word ANY is evidently to be pronounced louder and fuller than those with the accent over them. Get wealth and pláce, if possible with grace; If not, by ANY meáns get wealth and pláce.-POPE. This couplet is accented in the manner we find it in the Essay on Elocution by Mason. And if, according to the judgment of this author, the words thus distinguished are to have an emphatical stress, it must be of the inferior kind above mentioned, and which a little farther on we call emphasis of force; while the word ANY in a different type alone possesses the other sort of energy, and which is there contradistinguished by the term emphasis of sense. (B) Among a number of people who have had proper opportunities of learning to read in the best manner it is now taught, it would be difficult to find two, who, in a given instance, would use the emphasis of force alike, either as to place or quantity. Nay some scarcely use any at all: and others will not scruple to carry it much beyond any thing we have a precedent for in common discourse; and even now and then throw it upon words so very trifling in themselves, that it is evident they do it with no other view, than for the sake of the variety it gives to the modulation. This practice, like the introduction of discords into music, may without doubt be indulged now and then; but were it too frequent, the capital intent of these energies would manifestly either be destroyed or rendered dubious. (c) The first of these terms answers to the simple emphasis described in the Lectures on Elocution, and the second nearly to what is there called complex. The difference lies in this. Under complex emphasis the author seems (for he is far from being clear in this article) to include the tones simply considered of all the emotions of the mind; as well the tender and languid, as the forcible and exulting. Our term is intended to be confined to such modes of expression alone as are marked with an apparent stress or increase of the voice. (D) The author of the Introduction to the Art of Reading, not allowing that there is any variation of tone, as to high and low, in the delivery of a complete period or sentence, places modulation solely in the diversification of the key-note and the variety of syllables, as to long or short, swift or slow, strong or weak, and loud or soft. As we are of a different opinion, our idea of modulation is confined purely to harmonious inflexions of voice. These quali ties of words, it is true, add greatly both to the force and beauty of delivery; yet, since some of them are fixed and not arbitrary (as long and short), and the others (of swift and slow, strong and weak, loud and soft) may be considered as modes of expression which do not affect the modulation as to tone, it will agree best with our plan to tion. esteem iding ved, that, in speaking, the voice is subject to an altera- interval of a considerable magnitude. The tones, that Reading. tion of sound, which in some measure resembles the fall a little lower than the key at the close of a sentence movement of a tune. These sounds, however, are evi- or period, are called cadences. These cadences, if we dently nothing like so much varied as those that are are accurate in our distinctions, will, with respect to strictly musical; and we have attempted to show in the their offices, be found of two kinds; though they meet preceding chapter, that, besides this, they have an essen- so frequently together, that it may be best to conceive tial difference in themselves. Nevertheless, from the them only as answering a double purpose. One of these general similitude of these two articles, they possess seoffices is to assist the sense, and the other to decorate veral terms in common; and the particular we have the modulation. An account of the first may be seen now to examine is in both of them called modulation. in the section on Pauses; and the latter will be found This affection of the voice, being totally arbitrary, is to show itself pretty frequently in every thing grave and differently characterized in different parts of the world; plaintive, or in poetic description and other highly orand, through the power of custom, every place is inclin- namented language, where the mind is by its influence ed to think their own the only one natural and agree- brought to feel a placid kind of dignity and satisfaction. able, and the rest affected with some barbarous twang These two cadences, therefore, may be conveniently dior ungainly variation (E). It may be observed, how stinguished by applying to them respectively the epiever, that though there is a general uniform cast or thets significant and ornamental. fashion of modulation peculiar to every country, yet it by no means follows that there is or can be any thing fixed in its application to particular passages; and therefore we find different people will in any given instance, use modulations something different, and nevertheless be each of them equally agreeable. But, quitting these general remarks, we shall (as our purpose requires it) consider the properties of modulation a little more minutely. First, then, we may observe, that, in speaking, there is a particular sound (or key-note, as it is often called) in which the modulation for the most part runs, and to which its occasional inflexions, either above or below, may in some respects he conceived to have a reference, like that which common music has to its key-note. Yet there is this difference between the two kinds of modulation, that whereas the first always concludes in the key-note, the other frequently concludes a little below it (F). This key-note, in speaking, is generally the sound given at the outset of every complete sentence or period; and it may be observed on some occasions to vary its pitch through the limits of a musical We have already observed, that reading should in some things differ from speaking; and the particular under consideration seems to be one which ought to vary a little in these arts. For, Modulation in reading serves a twofold purpose. At the same time that it gives pleasure to the ear on the principles of harmony, it contributes through that me-dium to preserve the attention. And since written language (when not purely dramatical) is in general more elegant in its construction, and musical in its periods, than the oral one; and since many interesting particulars are wanting in reading, which are present in speaking, that contribute greatly to fix the regard of the hearer; it seems reasonable, in order to do justice to the language, and in part to supply the incitements of attention just alluded to, that in the former of these two articles a modulation should be used something more harmonious and artificial than in the latter. Agreeably to this reasoning, it is believed, we shall find every reader, on a narrow examination, adopt more or less a modulation thus ornamented: though, after all, it must be acknowledged there are better grounds to believe, that the esteem these properties as respectively belonging to the established laws of pronunciation and the imitative branch of expression mentioned in the end of the ensuing head. (E) From what accounts we have remaining of the modulation of the ancients, it appears to have been highly ornamented, and apparently something not unlike our modern recitative; particularly that of their theatric declamation was music in its strictest sense, and accompanied with instruments. In the course of time and the progress of refinement, this modulation became gradually more and more simple, till it has now lost the genius of music, and is entirely regulated by taste. At home here, every one has heard the sing-song cant, as it is called, of Ti ti dum dum, ti ti dum ti dum de, Ti dum ti dum, ti dum ti dum dum de; which, though disgustful now to all but to mere rustics on account of its being out of fashion, was very probably the favourite modulation in which heroic verses were recited by our ancestors. So fluctuating are the taste and practices of mankind! But whether the power of language over the passions has received any advantage from the change just mentioned, will appear at least very doubtful, when we recollect the stories of its former triumphs, and the inherent charms of musical sounds. (F) As musical sounds have always an harmonical reference to a key or fundamental note, and to which the mind is still secretly attending, no piece of music would appear perfect, that did not close in it, and so naturally put an end to expectation. But as the tones used in speech are not musical, and therefore cannot refer harmonically to any other sound, there can be no necessity that this terminating sound (and which we immediately below term the cadence) should either be used at all, or follow any particular law as to form, &c. farther than what is imposed by taste and custom. |