communion, who had been present at the diet, endea- Reformsvoured to recollect the arguments and objections employ- tisa. ed by Faber, and had again recourse to the pen of Melancthon, who refuted them in an ample and satisfactory manner, in a piece which was presented to the emperor on the 22d of September, but which Charles refused to receive. This answer was afterwards enlarged by Melaucthon, when he had obtained a copy of Faber's reply; and was published in the year 1531, with the other pieces that related to the doctrine and discipline of the Lutheran church, under the title of A Defence of the Confession of Augsburg.

Reforma regular system as yet composed, by which it might be tion. known with certainty what were the true causes of Luther's opposition to the pope. The elector of Saxony, therefore, ordered Luther, and other eminent divines, to commit to writing the chief articles of their religious system, and the principal points in which they differed from the church of Rome. Luther, in compliance with this order, delivered to the elector at Torgaw 17 articles which had been agreed upon in a conference at Sultzbach in 1529; from whence these received the name of the articles of Torgaw. But though these were decmed by Luther a suflicient declaration of the sentiments of the reformers, yet it was judged proper to enlarge them, in order to give perspicuity to their arguments, and strength to their cause. In this work Melancthon was employed; in which he showed a proper deference to the counsels of Luther, and expressed his sentiments and doctrine with the greatest elegance and perspicuity; and thus came forth to view the famous Confession of Augsburg.

14

It is pre

sented to

the empe

ror.

15

A refuta

in which the Protestants are

On the 15th of June 1530, Charles arrived at Augsburg, and the diet was opened five days after. The Protestants received a formal permission to present an account of their tenets to the diet on the 25th of the same month; in consequence of which, at the time appointed, Christian Bayer, chancellor of Saxony, read, in the German language, before the emperor and the princes assembled, the confession of Augsburg above mentioned. It contained 28 chapters, of which 21 were employed in representing the religious opinions of the Protestants, and the other seven is pointing out the errors and superstitions of the church of Rome. The princes heard it with the deepest attention and recollection of mind it confirmed some in the principles they had embraced; surprised others; and many, who be fore this time had little or no idea of the religious sentiments of Luther, were now not only convinced of their innocence, but delighted with their purity and simplicity. The copies of this Confession, which after being read were delivered to the emperor, were signed by John elector of Saxony, George marquis of Brandenburg, Ernest duke of Lunenburg, Philip landgrave of Hesse, Wolfgang prince of Anhalt, and by the imperial cities of Nuremburg and Reutlingen.

The creatures of the church of Rome who were pretion of it, sent at this diet employed John Faber, afterwards bishop of Vienna, together with Eckius, and another doctor named Cocklaus, to draw up a refutation of the Prostesordered to tant confession: which refutation having been publicly acquiesce. read, the emperor required the Protestant members to acquiesce in it, and put an end to the religious disputes by an unlimited submission to the opinions and doctrines contained in this answer. But this demand was far from being complied with. The Protestants declared on the contrary, that they were by no means satisfied with the reply of their adversaries; and earnestly desired a copy of it, that they might more fully demonstrate its extreme insufficiency and weakness. But this reasonable request was refused by the emperor; who interposed his supreme authority to prevent any farther proceedings in this matter, and solemnly prohibited the publication of any new writings or declarations that might contribute to lengthen out these religious debates. This, however, did not reduce the Protestants to silence. The divines of that

16

the Pro stants

Matters now began to draw towards a crisis. There were only three ways of bringing to a conclusion these religious differences. 1. To grant the Protestants a toleration and privilege of serving God as they thought proper: 2. To compel them to return to the church of Rome by the violent methods of persecution: or, 3. That a reconciliation should be made, upon fair, candid, and equitable terms, by engaging each of the parties to temper their zeal with moderation, to abate reciprocally the rigour of their pretensions, and remit something of their respective claims. The third expedient was most generally approved of, being peculiarly agreeable to all who had at heart the welfare of the empire; nor did the pope seem to look upon it either with aversion or contempt. Various conferences therefore were held between persons eminent for piety and learning on both sides; and nothing was omitted that might have the least tendency to calm the animosities and heal the divisions which reigned between the contending parties. But the differences were too great to admit of a reconciliation; and therefore the votaries of Rome had recourse to the Severe de powerful arguments of imperial edicts, and the force of crea the secular arm. On the 19th of November, a severe decree was issued out by the express order of the emperor (during the absence of the Hessian and Saxon princes, who were the chief supporters of the Protestant cause), in which every thing was manifestly adapted to deject the friends of religious liberty, excepting only a faint and dubious promise of engaging the pope to assemble a general council about six months after the separation of the diet. In this decree the dignity and excellence of the Popish religion were extolled beyond measure, a new degree of severity and force was added to that which had been published at Worms against Luther and his adherents, the changes which had been introduced into the doctrine and discipline of the Protestant churches were severely censured, and a solemn order was addressed to the princes, cities, and states, who had thrown off the Papal yoke, to return to their allegiance to Rome, on pain of incurring the indignation and vengeance of the emperor as the patron and protector of the church. Of this formidable decree the elector of Saxony and confederated princes were no sooner informed than they assembled in order to deliberate on the measures proper to be taken in such a crisis. In the years 1 530 and 1531 The leag they met, first at Smalcald, and afterwards at Francfort, of Smal where they formed a solemn alliance and confederacy, cald with the intention of defending vigorously their religion and liberties against the dangers and encroachments with which they were threatened by the edict of Augsburg, without attempting, however, any thing offensive against the votaries of Rome; and into this confederacy they in

17

18 Invitation to Henry VIII. of England.

This confederacy was at first opposed by Luther, from an apprehension of the calamities and troubles which it might produce; but at last, perceiving the necessity of it, he consented; though he uncharitably, as well as imprudently, refused to comprehend in it the followers of Zuinglius among the Swiss, together with the German states and cities who had adopted the sentiments and confession of Bucer. In the invitation addressed to Henry VIII. of England, whom the confederate princes were willing to declare the head and protector of their league, the following things, among others, were expressly stipulated: That the king should encourage, promote, and maintain, the true doctrine of Christ as it was contained in the confession of Augsburg, and defend the same at the next general council: that he should not agree to any council summoned by the bishop of Rome, but protest against it; and neither submit to its decrees, nor suffer them to be respected in his dominions: that he should never allow the Roman pontiff to have any preeminence or jurisdiction in his dominions; that he should advance 100,000 crowns for the use of the confederacy, and double that sum if it became necessary: all which articles the confederate princes were equally obliged to observe on their part. To these demands the king replied, that he would maintain and promote the true doctrine of Christ; but, at the same time, as the true ground of that doctrine lay only in the holy Scriptures, he would not accept at any one's hand what should be his own faith, or that of his kingdom; and therefore desired that they would send over two learned men to confer with him, in order to promote a religious union between him and the confederates. However, he declared himself of their opinion with regard to the meeting of a free general council, and promised to join with them in all such councils for the defence of the true doctrine; but thought the regulation of the ceremonial part of religion, being a matter of indifference, ought to be left to the choice of each sovereign for his own dominions. After this the king gave them a second answer more full and satisfactory; but after the execution of Queen Anne, this negotiation came to nothing. On the one hand the king grew cold when he perceived that the confederates were no longer of use to him in supporting the validity of his marriage; and, on the other hand, the German princes became sensible that they could never succeed with Henry, unless they allowed him an absolute dictatorship in matters of religion.

While every thing thus tended to an open war between the two opposite parties, the elector Palatine and the elector of Mentz offered their mediation, and endeavoured to procure a reconciliation. The emperor himself, for various reasons, was at this time inclined to peace: for, on the one hand, he stood in need of sucCours against the Turks, which the Protestant princes refused to grant as long as the edicts of Worms and Augsburg remained in force; and, on the other, the election of his brother Ferdinand to the dignity of king of the Romans, which had been carried by a majority of votes at the diet of Cologne in 1531, was by the same princes contested, as being contrary to the fundamental laws of the empire. In consequence of all this, after many negotiations and projects of reconciliation, a treaty 5

tion.

19

of peace was concluded at Nuremberg in 1532, between Reforma the emperor and the Protestant princes, on the following conditions; viz. That the latter should furnish a subsidy for carrying on the war against the Turks, and acknow- Peace of ledge Ferdinand lawful king of the Romans; and that Nuremberg the emperor on his part should abrogate and annul the concluded edicts of Worms and Augsburg, and allow the Lutherans the free and undisturbed exercise of their religious doctrine and discipline, until a rule of faith was fixed either in the free general council that was to be assembled in the space of six months, or in a diet of the empire.

20

Soon after the conclusion of the peace at Nuremberg. died John elector of Saxony, who was succeeded by his son John Frederic, a prince of invincible fortitude and magnanimity, but whose reign was little better than one continued train of disappointments and calamities. The religious truce, however, gave new vigour to the reformation. Those who had hitherto been only secret enemies to the Roman pontiff, now publicly threw off his yoke; and various cities and provinces of Germany enlisted themselves under the religious standards of Luther. On the other hand, as the emperor had now no other hope of terminating the religious disputes but by the meeting of a general council, he repeated his requests to the pope for that purpose. The pontiff (Clement VII.), A general' whom the history of past councils filled with the greatest council proposed. uneasiness, endeavoured to retard what he could not with decency refuse. At last, in 1533, he made a proposal by his legate to assemble a council at Mantua, Placentia, or Bologna; but the Protestants refused their consent to the nomination of an Italian council, and insisted that a controversy which had its rise in the heart of Germany, should be determined within the limits of the empire. The pope, by his usual artifices, eluded the performance of his own promise; and, in 1534, was cut off by death, in the midst of his stratagems. His successor Paul III. seemed to show less reluctance to the assembling a general council, and in the year 1535 expressed his inclination to convoke one at Mantua; and, the year following, actually sent circular letters for that purpose through all the states and kingdoms under his jurisdiction. council was summoned by a bull issued out on the 2d of June 1536, to meet at Mantua the following year: but several obstacles prevented its meeting; one of the most material of which was, that Frederic duke of Mantua had no inclination to receive at once so many guests,. some of them very turbulent, into the place of his residence. On the other hand, the Protestants were firmly persuaded that, as the council was assembled in Italy, and by the authority of the pope alone, the latter must have had an undue influence in that assembly; of consequence, that all things must have been carried by the votaries of Rome. For this reason they assembled at Protesta Smalcald in the year 1537, where they solemnly pro- tion against tested against this partial and corrupt council, and, at it. the same time, had a new summary of their doctrine drawn up by Luther, in order to present it to the assembled bishops if it should be required of them. This summary, which had the title of The Articles of Smalcald is commonly joined with the creeds and confessions. of the Lutheran church.

This

27

22

Reforma- but, by the artifices of the church of Rome, all of them tion. came to nothing. In 1541, the emperor appointed a conference at Worms on the subject of religion, between persons of piety and learning chosen from the contending parties. This conference, however, was, for certain reasons, removed to the diet which was to be held at Ratisbon that same year, and in which the principal subject of deliberation was a memorial presented by a person unknown, containing a project of peace. But the conference produced no other effect than a mutual agreement of the contending parties to refer their matters to a general council, or, if the meeting of such a council should be prevented, to the next German diet.

23

24

by the pope.

This resolution was rendered ineffectual by a variety of incidents, which widened the breach, and put off to a farther day the deliberations which were designed to heal it. The pope ordered his legate to declare to the diet of Spire, assembled in 1542, that he would, according to the promise he had already made, assemble a Council of general council, and that Trent should be the place of Trent pro- its meeting, if the diet had no objection to that city. posed. Ferdinand, and the princes who adhered to the cause of the pope, gave their consent to this proposal; but it was vehemently objected to by the Protestants, both because the council was summoned by the authority of the pope only, and also because the place was within the jurisdiction of the pope; whereas they desired a free council, which should not be biassed by the dictates, nor awed by the proximity of the pontiff. But this protestation produced no effect. Paul III. persisted in his purpose, and issued out his circular letters for the convocation of Plan of re- the council, with the approbation of the emperor. In formation justice to this pontiff, however, it must be observed, proposed that he showed himself not to be averse to every reformation. He appointed four cardinals, and three other persons eminent for their learning, to draw up a plan for the reformation of the church in general, and of the church of Rome in particular. The reformation proposed in this plan was indeed extremely superficial and partial, yet it contained some particulars which could scarcely have been expected from those who composed it. They complained of the pride and ignorance of the bishops, and proposed that none should receive orders but learned and pious men; and that therefore care should be taken to have proper masters for the instruction of youth. They condemned translations from one benefice to another, grants of reservation, non-residence, and pluralities. They proposed that some convents should be abolished that the liberty of the press should be restrained and limited; that the colloquies of Erasmus should be suppressed; that no ecclesiastic should enjoy a benefice out of his own country; that no cardinal should have a bishopric; that the questors of St Anthony and several other saints should be abolished; and, which was the best of all their proposals, that the effects and personal estates of ecclesiastics should be given to the poor. They concluded with complaining of the prodigious number of indigent and ragged priests who frequented St Peter's church; and declared, that it was a great scandal to see the whores lodged so magnificently at Rome, and riding through the streets on fine mules, while the cardinals and other ecclesiastics accompanied them in the most courteous manner. This plan of reformation was turned into ridicule by Luther and Stur

3

tion.

25 War be

tween the

mius; and indeed it left unredressed the most intolerable Reformsgrievances of which the Protestants complained. All this time the emperor had been labouring to persuade the Protestants to consent to the meeting of the council at Trent; but when he found them fixed in their opposition to this measure, he began to listen to the san-emperst guinary measures of the pope, and resolved to terminate and the the disputes by force of arms. The elector of Saxony Protestani and landgrave of Hesse, who were the chief supporters of the Protestant cause, upon this took proper measures to prevent their being surprised and overwhelmed by a superior force; but, before the horrors of war commenced, the great reformer Luther died in peace at Ayselben, the place of his nativity, in 1546.

The emperor and the pope had mutually resolved on the destruction of all who should dare to oppose the council of Trent. The meeting of it was to serve as a signal for taking up arms; and accordingly its deliberations were scarcely begun in 1546, when the Protestants perceived undoubted signs of the approaching storm, and a formidable union betwixt the emperor and pope, which threatened to crush and overwhelm them at once. This year indeed there had been a new conference at Ratisbon upon the old subject of accommodating differences in religion; but from the manner in which the debates were carried on, it plainly appeared that these differences could only be decided in the field of battle. The council of Trent, in the mean time, promulgated their decrees; while the reformed princes, in the diet of Ratisbon, protested against their authority, and were on that account proscribed by the emperor, who raised an army to reduce them to obedience. See Father Paul's History of the Council of Trent, and our articles Father PAUL, and TRENT.

The elector of Saxony and the landgrave of Hesse led their forces into Bavaria against the emperor, and cannonaded his camp at Ingolstadt. It was supposed that this would bring on an engagement, which would probably have been advantageous to the cause of the reformed; but this was prevented, chiefly by the perfidy of Maurice duke of Saxony, who invaded the dominions of his uncle. Divisions were also fomented among the confederate princes, by the dissimulation of the emperor; and France failed in paying the subsidy which had been promised by its monarch: all which so discouraged the heads of the Protestant party, that their army soon dispersed, and the elector of Saxony was obliged to direct his march homewards. But he was pursued by the emperor, who made several forced marches, with a view to destroy his enemy before he should have time to recoElector ver his vigour. The two armies met near Mulberg, on the Elbe, on the 24th of April 1547; and, after a feated and bloody action, the elector was entirely defeated, and taken po himself taken prisoner.-Maurice, who had so basely be-soner. trayed him, was now declared elector of Saxony; and by his intreaties Philip landgrave of Hesse, the other chief of the Protestants, was persuaded to throw himself on the mercy of the emperor, and to implore his pardon. To this he consented, relying on the promise of Charles for obtaining forgiveness, and being restored to liberty; but, notwithstanding these expectations, he was unjustly detained prisoner, by a scandalous violation of the most solemn convention. It is said that the emperor retracted his promise, and deluded this unhappy prince by the

ambiguity

26

Saxony de

=tion.

eforma ambiguity of two German words. History indeed can scarcely afford a parallel to the perfidious, mean-spirited, and despotic behaviour of the emperor in the present case. After having received in public the humble submission of the prince on his knees, and after having set him at liberty by a solemn treaty, he had him arrested anew without any reason, nay, without any pretence, and kept him close prisoner for several years. When Maurice remonstrated against this new confinement, the emperor answered, that he had never promised that the landgrave should not be imprisoned anew, but only that he should be exempted from perpetual imprisonment; and, to support this assertion, he produced the treaty, into which his ministers had perfidiously foisted ewiger gefangnis, which signifies a "perpetual prison," instead of einiger gefangnis, which signifies "any prison." This, however, is contested by some historians.

The affairs of the Protestants now seemed to be desperate. In the diet of Augsburg, which was soon after called, the emperor required the Protestants to leave the decision of these religious disputes to the wisdom of the council which was to meet at Trent. The greatest part of the members consented to this proposal, being convinced by the powerful argument of an imperial army, which was at hand to dispel the darkness from the eyes of such as might otherwise have been blind to the force of Charles's reasoning. However, this general submission did not produce the effect which was expected from coun- it. A plague which broke out, or was said to do so, in sudden- the city, caused the greatest part of the bishops to retire issolved. to Bologna; by which means the council was in effect

27

128

dissolved, nor could all the intreaties and remonstrances of the emperor prevail upon the pope to re-assemble it without delay. During this interval, therefore, the emperor judged it necessary to fall upon some method of accommodating the religious differences, and maintaining peace until the council so long expected should be finally rmula- obtained. With this view he ordered Julius Pelugius, rawn bishop of Naumberg, Michael Sidonius, a creature of y the the pope, and John Agricola, a native of Ayselben, to draw up a formulary which might serve as a rule of faith and worship, till the council should be assembled: but as this was only a temporary expedient, and had not the force of a permanent or perpetual institution, it thence obtained the name of the Interim.

eror.

19

leases

par

This project of Charles was formed partly with a design to vent his resentment against the pope, and partly to answer other political purposes. It contained all the essential doctrines of the church of Rome, though considerably softened by the artful terms which were employed, and which were quite different from those employ. ed before and after this period by the council of Trent. There was even an affected ambiguity in many of the expressions, which made them susceptible of different senses, and applicable to the sentiments of both communions. The consequence of all this was, that the imperial creed was reprobated by both parties. However, it was promulgated with great solemnity by the emperor at Augsburg. The elector of Mentz, without even asking the opinion of the princes present, gave a sanction to this formula, as if he had been commissioned to represent the whole diet. Many kept silence through fear, and that silence was interpreted as a tacit consent. Some had the courage to oppose it, and these were reduced by force of arms; and the most deplorable scenes of blood

tion.

30 Scheme of

tion.

shed and violence were acted throughout the whole em- Reformapire. Maurice, elector of Saxony, who had hitherto kept neutral, now assembled the whole of his nobility and clergy, in order to deliberate on this critical affair. At the head of the latter was Melancthon, whose word was respected as a law among the Protestants. But this reconciliaman had not the courage of Luther; and was therefore tion by on all occasions ready to make concessions, and to pro- Melane pose schemes of accommodation. In the present case, therefore, he gave it as his opinion, that the whole of the book called Interim could not by any means be adopted by the Protestants; but at the same time he declared, that he saw no reason why this book might not be approved, adopted and received, as an authorative rule in things that did not relate to the essential parts of religion, and which he accounted indifferent. But this scheme, instead of cementing the differences, made them worse than ever; and produced a division among the Protestants themselves, which might have overthrown the Reformation entirely, if the emperor and pope had seized the opportunity.

Trent.

In the year 1549, the pope (Paul III.) died; and A new was succeeded by Julius III. who, at the repeated solici- council protations of the emperor, consented to the re-assembling of posed at a council at Trent. A diet was again held at Augsburg under the cannon of an imperial army, and Charles laid the matter before the princes of the empire. Most of those present gave their consent to it, and among the rest Maurice elector of Saxony; who consented on the following conditions: 1. That the points of doctrine which had already been decided there, should be re-examined. 2. That this examination should be made in presence of the Protestant divines. 3. That the Saxon Protestants should have a liberty of voting as well as of deliberating in the council. 4. That the pope should not pretend to preside in that assembly, either in person or by his legatees. This declaration of Maurice was read in the diet, and his deputies insisted upon its being entered into the registers, which the archbishop of Mentz obstinately refused. This diet was concluded in the year 1551; and, at its breaking up, the emperor desired the assembled princes and states to prepare all things for the approaching council, and promised to use his utmost endeavours to procure moderation and harmony, impartiality and charity, in the transactions of that assembly.

On the breaking up of the diet, the Protestants took such steps as they thought most proper for their own safety. The Saxons employed Melancthon, and the Wurtembergers Brengius, to draw up Confessions of Faith to be laid before the new council. The Saxon divines, however, proceeded no farther than Nuremberg, having received secret orders from Maurice to stop there: For the elector, perceiving that Charles had formed designs against the liberties of the German princes, resolved to take the most effectual measures for crushing his ambition at once. He therefore entered with the utmost secrecy and expedition into an alliance with the king of France and several of the German princes, for the security of the rights and liberties of The empe the empire; after which, assembling a powerful army ror is sur in 1552, he marched against the emperor, who lay with prised, and a handful of troops at Inspruck, and expected no such forced to a peace by thing. By this sudden and unforeseen accident Charles the elector was so much dispirited, that he was willing to make of Saxony.

peace

32

Reforma peace almost on any terms. The consequence of this tion. was, that he concluded a treaty at Passau, which by the Protestants is considered as the basis of their religious liberty. By the first three articles of this treaty it was agreed, that Maurice and the confederates should lay down their arms, and lend their troops to Ferdinand to assist him against the Turks; and that the landgrave of Hesse should be set at liberty. By the fourth it was agreed, that the rule of faith called the Interim should be considered as null and void: that the contending parties should enjoy the free and undisturbed exercise of their religion, until a diet should be assembled to determine amicably the present disputes (which diet was to meet in the space of six months); and that this religious liberty should continue always, in case it should be found impossible to come to an uniformity in doc trine and worship. It was also determined, that all those who had suffered banishment, or any other calamity, on account of their having been concerned in the league or war of Smalcald, should be reinstated in their privileges, possessions, and employments; that the imperial chamber at Spire should be open to the Protestants as well as to the Catholics; and that there should always be a certain number of Lutherans in that high court. To this peace Albert, marquis of Brandenburg, refused to subscribe; and continued the war against the Roman Catholics, committing such ravages in the empire, that a confederacy was at last formed against him. At the head of this confederacy was Maurice elector of Saxony, who died of a wound he received in a battle fought on the occasion in 1553.

33

The assembling of the diet promised by Charles was prevented by various incidents; however, it met at Augsburg in 1555, where it was opened by Ferdinand in name of the emperor, and terminated those deplorable calamities which had so long desolated the empire. After various debates, the following acts were passed, on Treaty of the 25th of September: That the Protestants who folAugsburg. lowed the Confession of Augsburg should be for the future considered as entirely free from the jurisdiction of the Roman pontiff, and from the authority and superintendance of the bishops; that they were left at perfect liberty to enact laws for themselves relating to their religious sentiments, discipline, and worship; that all the inhabitants of the German empire should be allowed to judge for themselves in religious matters, and to join themselves to that church whose doctrine and worship they thought the most pure and consonant to the spirit of true Christianity; and that all those who should injure or persecute any person under religious pretences, and on account of their opinions, should be declared and proceeded against as public enemies of the empire, invaders of its liberty, and disturbers of its peace.

34

Thus was the Reformation established in many parts of the German empire, where it continues to this day; nor have the efforts of the Popish powers at any time been able to suppress it, or even to prevent it from gainAccount of ing ground. It was not, however, in Germany alone the Refor that a reformation of religion took place. Almost all mation in the kingdoms of Europe began to open their eyes to the truth about the same time. The reformed religion was propagated in Sweden, soon after Luther's rupture with the church of Rome, by one of his disciples named Olaus Petri. The zealous efforts of this missionary were seconded by Gustavus Vasa, whom the Swedes had raised

Sweden.

to the throne in place of Christiern king of Denmark, Reformswhose horrid barbarity lost him the crown. This prince, tion. however, was as prudent as he was zealous; and, as the minds of the Swedes were in a fluctuating state, he wisely avoided all kind of vehemence and precipitation in spreading the new doctrine. Accordingly, the first object of his attention was the instruction of his people in the sacred doctrines of the Holy Scriptures: for which purpose he invited into his dominions several learned Germans, and spread abroad through the kingdom the Swedish translation of the Bible that had been made by Olaus Petri. Some time after this, in 1526, he ap pointed a conference at Upsal, between this reformer and Peter Gallius, a zealous defender of the ancient superstition, in which each of the champions was to bring forth his arguments, that it might be seen on which side the truth lay. In this dispute Olaus obtained a signal victory; which contributed much to confirm Gustavus in his persuasion of the truth of Luther's doctrine, and to promote its progress in Sweden. The following year another event gave the finishing stroke to its propagation and success. This was the assembly of the states at Westeraas, where Gustavus recommended the doctrine of the reformers with such zeal, that, after warm debates fomented by the clergy in general, it was unanimously resolved that the reformation introduced by Luther should have place in Sweden. This resolution was principally owing to the firmness and magnanimity of Gustavus, who declared publicly, that he would lay down the sceptre and retire from the kingdom, rather than rule a people enslaved by the orders and authority of the pope, and more controuled by the tyranny of their bishops than by the laws of their monarch. From this time the papal empire in Sweden was entirely overthrown, and Gustavus declared head of the church.

35

In Denmark, the reformation was introduced as early In Des as the year 1521, in consequence of the ardent desire mark. discovered by Christiern II. of having his subjects instructed in the doctrines of Luther. This monarch, notwithstanding his cruelty, for which his name has been rendered odious, was nevertheless desirous of delivering his dominions from the tyranny of the church of Rome. For this purpose, in the year 1520, he sent for Martin Reinard, one of the disciples of Carlostadt, out of Saxony, and appointed him professor of divinity at Hafnia; and after his death, which happened in 1531, he invited Carlostadt himself to fill that important place. Carlostadt accepted of this office indeed, but in a short time returned to Germany; upon which Christiern used his utmost endeavours to engage Luther to visit his dominions, but in vain. However, the progress of Christiern, in reforming the religion of his subjects, orʼrather of advancing his own power above that of the church, was checked, in the year 1523, by a conspiracy, by which he was deposed and banished; his uncle Frede ric, duke of Holstein and Sleswic, being appointed his successor.

Frederic conducted the reformation with much greater prudence than bis predecessor. He permitted the Protestant doctors to preach publicly the sentiments of Luther, but did not venture to change the established government and discipline of the church. However, he contributed greatly to the progress of the reformation, by his successful attempts in favour of religious liberty in an assembly of the states held at Odensee in