tion.

Reforma 1527. Here he procured the publication of a famous edict, by which every subject of Denmark was declared free either to adhere to the tenets of the church of Rome, or to the doctrine of Luther. The papal tyranny was totally destroyed by his successor Christiern III. He began by suppressing the despotic authority of the bishops, and restoring to their lawful owners a great part of the wealth and possessions which the church had acquired by various stratagems. This was followed by a plan of religious doctrine, worship, and discipline, laid down by Bugenhagius, whom the king had sent for from Wittemberg for that purpose; and in 1539 an assembly of the states at Odensee gave a solemn sauction to all these transactions.

36 France.

ee Huots.

In France also, the reformation began to make some progress very early. Margaret queen of Navarre, sister to Francis I. the perpetual rival of Charles V. was a great friend to the new doctrine; and it appears that, as early as the year 1523, there were in several of the provinces of France great numbers of people who had conceived the greatest aversion both to the doctrine and tyranny of the church of Rome; among whom were many of the first rank and dignity, and even some of the episcopal order. But as their number increased daily, and troubles and commotions were excited in several places on account of the religious differences, the authority of the king intervened, and many persons eminent for their virtue and piety were put to death in the most barbarous manner. Indeed Francis, who had either no religion at all, or, at best, no fixed and consistent system of religious principles, conducted himself towards the Protestants in such a manner as best answered his private views. Sometimes he resolved to invite Melancthon into France, probably with a view to please his sister the queen of Navarre, whom he loved tenderly, and who had strongly imbibed the Protestant principles. At other times he exercised the most infernal cruelty towards the reformed; and once made the following mad declaration, That if he thought the blood in his arm was tainted by the Lutheran heresy, he would have it cut off; and that he would not spare even his own children, if they entertained sentiments contrary to those of the Catholic church.

About this time the famous Calvin began to draw the attention of the public, but more especially of the queen of Navarre. His zeal exposed him to danger; and the friends of the reformation, whom Francis was daily committing to the flames, placed him more than once in the most perilous situation, from which he was delivered by the interposition of the queen of Navarre. He therefore retired out of France to Basil in Swisserland; where he published his Christian Institutions, and became afterwards so famous.

Those among the French who first renounced the jurisdiction of the Romish church, are commonly called Lutherans by the writers of those early times. Hence it has been supposed that they had all imbibed the peculiar sentiments of Luther. But this appears by no means to have been the case: for the vicinity of the cities of Geneva, Lausanne, &c. which had adopted the doctrines of Calvin, produced a remarkable effect upon the French Protestant churches; insomuch that, about the middle of this century, they all entered into communion with the church of Geneva. The French Protestants were called Huguenots* by their adversaries, by way of VOL. XVII. Part II.

N° 137,

contempt. Their fate was very severe, being persecuted Reforma. with unparalleled fury; and though many princes of the tion. blood, and of the first nobility, had embraced their sentiments, yet in no part of the world did the reformers suffer so much +. At last all commotions were quelled + See by the fortitude and magnanimity of Henry IV. who in France, the year 1598 granted all his subjects full liberty of conscience by the famous Edict of Nantes, and seemed to have thoroughly established the reformation throughout his dominions. During the minority of Louis XIV. however, this edict was revoked by Cardinal Mazarine, since which time the Protestants have often been cruelly persecuted; nor was the profession of the reformed religion in France at any time so safe as in most other countries of Europe.

141-149.

&c.

3T

In the other parts of Europe the opposition to the In the Nechurch of Rome was but faint and ambiguous before the therlands, diet of Augsburg. Before that period, however, it ap pears from undoubted testimony, that the doctrine of Luther had made a considerable, though probably secret, progress through Spain, Hungary, Bohemia, Britain, Poland, and the Netherlands; and had in all these countries many friends, of whom several repaired to Wittemberg, in order to enlarge their knowledge by means of Luther's conversation. Some of these countries threw off the Romish yoke entirely, and in others a prodigious number of families embraced the principles of the reformed religion. It is certain indeed, and some Roman Catholics themselves acknowledge it without hesitation, that the Papal doctrines and authority would have fallen into ruin in all parts of the world at once, had not the force of the secular arm been employed to support the tottering edifice. In the Netherlands particularly, the most grievous persecutions took place, so that by the emperor Charles V. upwards of 100,000 were destroyed, while still greater cruelties were exercised upon the people by his son Philip II. The revolt of the United Provinces, however, and motives of real policy, at last put a stop to these furious proceedings; and, though in many provinces of the Netherlands, the establishment of the Popish religion was still continued, the Protestants have been long free from the danger of persecution on account of their principles.

38

The reformation made considerable progress in Spain In Italy. and Italy soon after the rupture between Luther and the Roman pontiff. In all the provinces of Italy, but more especially in the territories of Venice, Tuscany, and Naples, the superstition of Rome lost ground, and great numbers of people of all ranks expressed an aversion to the Papal yoke. This occasioned violent and dangerous commotions in the kingdom of Naples in the year 1546; which, however, were at last quelled by the united forces of Charles V. and his viceroy Don Pedro di Toledo. In several places the pope put a stop to the progress of the reformation, by letting loose the inquisitors, who spread dreadful marks of their barbarity through the greatest part of Italy. These formidable ministers of superstition put so many to death, and perpetrated such horrid acts of cruelty and oppression, that most of the reformed consulted their safety by a voluntary exile, while others returned to the religion of Rome, at least in external appearance. But the inquisition, which frighted into the profession of Popery several Protestants in other parts of Italy, could never make its way into the kingdom of Naples; nor could either 4 R

the

Reforma- the authority or entreaties of the pope engage the Neapolitans to admit even visiting inquisitors.

tion.

39

In Spain.

40 In England.

In Spain, several people embraced the Protestant religion, not only from the controversies of Luther, but even from those divines whom Charles V. had brought with him into Germany in order to refute the doctrines of Luther. For these doctors imbibed the pretended heresy instead of refuting it, and propagated it more or less on their return home. But the inquisition, which could obtain no footing in Naples, reigned triumphant in Spain, and by the most dreadful methods frightened the people back into Popery, and suppressed the desire of exchanging their superstition for a more rational plan of religion. It was indeed presumed that Charles himself died a Protestant; and it seems to be certain, that, when the approach of death had dissipated those schemes of ambition and grandeur which had so long blinded him, his sentiments became much more rational and agrecable to Christianity than they had ever been. All the ecclesiastics who had attended him, as soon as he expired, were sent to the inquisition, and committed to the flames, or put to death by some other method equally terrible. Such was the fate of Augustine Casal, the emperor's preacher; of Constantius Pontius, his confessor; of Egidius, whom he had named to the bishopric of Tortosa; of Bartholomew de Caranza, a Dominican, who had been confessor to King Philip and Queen Mary; with 20 others of less note.

In England, the principles of the reformation began to be adopted as soon as an account of Luther's doctrines could be conveyed thither. In that kingdom there were still great remains of the sect called Lollards, whose doctrine resembled that of Luther; and among whom, of consequence, the sentiments of our reformer gained great credit. Henry VIII. king of England at that time was a violent partisan of the church of Rome, and had a particular veneration for the writings of Thomas Aquinas. Being informed that Luther spoke of his favourite author with contempt, he conceived a violent prejudice against the reformer, and even wrote against him, as we have already observed. Luther did not hesitate at writing against his majesty, overcame him in argument, and treated him with very little ceremony. The first step towards public reformation, however, was not taken till the year 1529. Great complaints had been made in England, and of a very ancient date, of the usurpations of the clergy; and by the prevalence of the Lutheran opinions, these complaints were now become more general than before. The house of commons, finding the occasion favourable, passed several bills, restraining the impositions of the clergy: but what threatened the ecclesiastical order with the greatest danger were the severe reproaches thrown out almost without opposition in the house against the dissolute lives, ambition, and avarice of the priests, and their continual encroachments on the privileges of the laity. The bills for regulating the clergy met with opposition in the house of lords; and Bishop Fisher imputed them to want of faith in the commons, and to a formed design, proceeding from heretical and Lutheran principles, of robbing the church of her patrimony, and overturning the national religion. The commons, however, complained to the king, by their speaker Sir Thomas Audley, of these reflections thrown out against them; and the bishop was obliged to retract his words.

tion

Though Henry had not the least idea of rejecting Reforma any, even of the most absurd Romish superstitions, yet as the oppressions of the clergy suited very ill with the violence of his own temper, he was pleased with every opportunity of lessening their power. In the parlia ment of 1531, he showed his design of humbling the clergy in the most effectual manner. An obsolete statute was revived, from which it was pretended that it was criminal to submit to the legatine power which had been exercised by Cardinal Wolsey. By this stroke the whole body of clergy was declared guilty at once. They were too well acquainted with Henry's disposi tion, however, to reply, that their ruin would have been the certain consequence of their not submitting to Wolsey's commission, which had been given by royal authority. Instead of making any defence of this kind, they chose to throw themselves on the mercy of their sovereign; which, however, it cost them 118,84cl. to procure. A confession was likewise extorted from them, that the king was protector and supreme head of the church of England; though some of them had the dexterity to get a clause inserted, which invalidated the whole submission, viz. in so far as is permitted by the law of Christ.

The king, having thus begun to reduce the power of the clergy, kept no bounds with them afterwards. He did not indeed attempt any reformation in religious matters; nay, he persecuted most violently such as did attempt this in the least. Indeed, the most essential article of his creed seems to have been his own supremacy: for whoever denied this, was sure to suffer the most severe penalties, whether Protestant or Papist. But an account of the absurd and cruel conduct of this prince, and of his final quarrel with the pope on account of his refusing a dispensation to marry Anne Boleyn, is given under the article ENGLAND, No 253

292.

He died in 1547, and was succeeded by his only son Edward VI. This amiable prince, whose early youth was crowned with that wisdom, sagacity, and vistue, that would have done honour to advanced years, gave new spirit and vigour to the Protestant cause, and was its brightest ornament, as well as its most effectual support. He encouraged learned and pious men of foreign countries to settle in England, and addressed a particular invitation to Martin Bucer and Paul Fagius, whose moderation added a lustre to their other virtues, that, by the ministry and labours of these eminent men, in concert with those of the friends of the Reformation in England, he might purge his dominions from the sordid fictions of popery, and establish the pure doctrines of Christianity in their place. For this purpose, he issued out the wisest orders for the restoration of true religion; but his reign was too short to accomplish fully such a glorious purpose. In the year 1553, he was taken from his loving and afflicted subjects, whose sorrow was inexpressible, and suited to their loss. His sister Mary (the daughter of Catharine of Arragon, from whom Henry had been separated by the famous divorce), a furious bigot to the church of Rome, and a princess whose natural character, like the spirit of her religion, was despotic and cruel, succeeded him on the British throne, and imposed anew the arbitrary laws and the tyrannical yoke of Rome upon the people of England. Nor were the methods she employed in the cause

of

Reforma 1785, and Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History. See also tion, Sleidan De Statu Religionis et Reipublicæ, Carolo V. Refraction, Casure, Commentarii; and Father Paul's History of the Council of Trent.

REFRACTION, in general, is the deviation of a moving body from its direct course, occasioned by the different density of the medium in which it moves; or it is a change of direction occasioned by a body's falling obliquely out of one medium into another. The word is chiefly made use of with regard to the rays of light. See OPTICS Index, at Refraction.

REFRACTION of Altitude, the arc or portion of a vertical circle, by which the altitude of a star is increased by the refriction of light.

REFRACTION of Ascension and Descension, an arc of the equator, by which the ascension and descension of a star, whether right or oblique, is increased or diminish ed by the refraction.

REFRACTION of Declination, is an arc of a circle of declination, by which the declination of a star is increased or diminished by refraction.

REFRACTION of Latitude, an arc of a circle of latitude, by which the latitude of a star is increased or diminished by the refraction.

REFRACTION of Longitude, an arc of the ecliptic, by which the longitude of a star is increased or diminished by means of the refraction.

REFRACTION, Terrestrial, is that which makes terrestrial objects appear to be raised higher than they are in reality, in observing their altitudes. The quantity of this refraction is estimated at one-tenth by Dr Maskelyne; at one-fourteenth by Le Gendre; and by De Lambre at one-eleventh. But there can be no fixed quantity of this refraction, since it depends upon the state of the atmosphere, which is extremely variable. Some singular effects of this refraction have been noticed, and in particular the following, which were observed by Mr Latham at Hastings, during a very hot day, on which it was high water about two o'clock P. M. The day was also perfectly calm.

"On Wednesday, July 26. about five o'clock in the afternoon, while I was sitting in my dining-room at this place, which is situated upon the Parade, close to the sea-shore, nearly fronting the south, my attention was excited by a number of people running down to the sea-side. Upon inquiring the reason, I was informed that the coast of France was plainly to be distinguished by the naked eye. I immediately went down to the shore, and was surprised to find that, even without the assistance of a telescope, I could very plainly see the cliffs on the opposite coast; which, at the nearest part, are between 40 and 50 miles distant, and are not to be discerned, from that low situation, by the aid of the best glasses. They appeared to be only a few miles off, and seemed to extend for some leagues along the coast. I pursued my walk along the shore eastward, close to the water's edge, conversing with the sailors and fishermen upon the subject. They at first could not be persuaded of the reality of the appearance; but they soon became so thoroughly convinced, by the cliffs gradually appearing more elevated, and approaching nearer, as it were, that they pointed out and named to me the different places they had been accustomed to visit ; such as the Bay, the Old Head or Man, the Windmill, &c. at Boulogne; St Vallery, and other places on the coast

of Picardy; which they afterwards confirmed when Refraction they viewed them through their telescopes. Their observations were, that the places appeared as near as Refugees if they were sailing at a small distance, into the harbours."*

* Phil

1795.

REFRANGIBILITY OF LIGHT, the disposition of Trans. rays to be refracted. The term is chiefly applied to the disposition of rays to produce different colours, according to their diferent degrees of refrangibility. Ste CHROMATICS and OPTICS passim.

REFRIGERATIVE, in Medicine, a remedy which refreshes the inward parts by cooling them; as clysters, ptisans, &c.

REFRIGERATORY, in Chemistry, a vessel filled with cold water, through which the worm passes in distillations; the use of which is to condense the vapours as they pass through the worm.

CITIES OF REFUGE, were places provided as Asy la, for such as against their will should happen to kill a man. Of these cities there were three on each side Jordan on this side were Kedesh of Naphtali, Hebron, and Shechem; beyond Jordan were Bezer, Golan, and Ramoth-Gilead. When any of the Hebrews, or strangers that dwelt in their country, happened to spill the blood of a man, they might retire thither to be out of the reach of the violent attempts of the relations of the deceased, and to prepare for their defence and justifica tion before the judges. The manslayer underwent two trials: first before the judges of the city of refuge to which he had fled; and secondly before the judges of his own city. If found guilty, he was put to death with all the severity of the law. If he was acquitted, he was not immediately set at liberty; but, to inspire a degree of horror against even involuntary homicide, he was reconducted to the place of refuge, and obliged to continue there in a sort of banishment till the death of the high-priest. If, before this time, he ventured out, the revenger of blood might freely kill him; but after the high-priest's death he was at liberty to go where he pleased without molestation. It was necessary that the person who fled to any of the cities of refuge should understand some trade or calling, that he might not be burthensome to the inhabitants. The cities of refuge were required to be well supplied with water and necessary provisions. They were also to be easy of access, to have good roads leading to them, with commodious bridges where there was occasion. The width of the roads was to be 32 cubits or 48 feet at least. It was further required, that at all cross-ways direction-posts should be erected, with an inscription pointing out the road to the citics of refuge. The 15th of Adar, which answers to our February moon, wa- appointed for the city magistrates to see that the roads were in good condition. No person in any of these cities was allowed to make weapons, lest the relations of the deceased should be furnished with the means of gratifying their revenge. Deut. xix. 3. iv. 41. 43.; Josh. xx. 7. Three other cities of refuge were conditionally promised, but never granted. See ASYLUM

REFUGEES, a term at first applied to the French Protestants, who, by the revocation of the edict of Nantz, were constrained to fly from persecution, and take refuge in foreign countries. Since that time, however, it has been extended to all such as leave their country in time of distress; and hence, since the revolt of the British

Refugees British colonies in America, we have frequently heard of American refugees. Regata.

REGALE, a magnificent entertainment or treat, given to ambassadors and other persons of distinction, to entertain or do them honour.

It is usual in Italy, at the arrival of a traveller of eminence, to send him a regale, that is, a present of sweetmeats, fruits, &c. by way of refreshment.

REGALIA, in Law, the rights and prerogatives of a king. See PREROGATIVE.

Regalia is also used for the apparatus of a coronation; as the crown, the sceptre with the cross, that with the dove, St Edward's staff, the globe, and the orb with the cross, four several swords, &c.-The regalia of Scotland were deposited in the castle of Edinburgh in the year 1707, in what is called the jewel office. The room was a few years ago opened by some commissioners appointed by the king, when the large chest in which it is supposed they were placed was examined; but nothing was found in it. It is very generally thought that the regalia were carried to the Tower of London in the reign of Queen Anne; and a crown is there shown which is called the Scotch crown. This, however, does not appear to be the real crown of Scotland. It seems, therefore, most probable that the Scottish regalia must have been taken away by stealth, and either destroyed or melted down.

LORD of REGALITY, in Scots Law. See LAW, N° clviii. 4.

COURT of REGARD. See FOREST-Courts. REGARDANT, in Heraldry, signifies looking behind; and it is used for a lion or other beast, with his face turned towards his tail.

REGARDER, an ancient officer of the king's forest, sworn to make the regard of the forest every year; that is, to take a view of its limits, to inquire into all offences and defaults committed by the foresters within the forest, and to observe whether all the officers execute their respective duties. See FORESTLaws.

REGATA, or REGATTA, a species of amusement peculiar to the republic of Venice. This spectacle has the power of exciting the greatest emotions of the heart, admiration, enthusiasm, a sense of glory, and the whole train of our best feelings. The grand regata is only exhibited on particular occasions, as the visits of foreign princes and kings at Venice.

It is difficult to give a just idea of the ardour that the notice of a regata spreads among all classes of the inhabitants of Venice. Proud of the exclusive privilege of giving such a spectacle, through the wonderful local circumstances of that city, they are highly delighted with making preparations a long time before, in order to contribute all they can towards the perfection and enjoyment of the spectacle. A thousand interests are formed and augmented every day; parties in favour of the different competitors who are known; the protection of young noblemen given to the gondoliers in their service; the desire of honours and rewards in the aspirants; and, in the midst of all this, that ingenious national industry, which awakes the Venetians from their habitual indolence, to derive advantage and business from the agitation of the moment; all these circumstances united give to the numerous inhabitants of this lively city a degree of spirit and animation which render it during that time

a delightful abode in the eyes of the philosopher and Regata. the stranger. Crowds of people flock from the adjacent parts, and travellers joyfully repair to this scene of gaiety and pleasure.

Although it is allowable for any man to go and inscribe his name in the list of combatants until the fixed number is complete, it will not be amiss to remark one thing, which has relation to more ancient times. The state of a gondolier is of much consideration among * See the people; which is very natural, that having been the Gondola. primitive condition of the inhabitants of this country. But, besides this general consideration, there are among them some families truly distinguished and respected by their equals, whose antiquity is acknowledged, and who, on account of a succession of virtuous men, able in their profession, and honoured for the prizes they have carried off in these contests, form the body of noble gondoliers; often more worthy of that title than the higher order of nobility, who only derive their honours from the merit of their ancestors, or from their own riches. The consideration for those families is carried so far, that, in the disputes frequently arising among the gondoliers in their ordinary passage of the canals, we sometimes see a quarrel instantly made up by the simple interposition of a third person, who has chanced to be of this revered body. They are rigid with respect to misalliances in their families, and they endeavour reciprocally to give and take their wives among those of their own rank. But we must remark here, with pleasure, that these distinctions infer no inequality of condition, nor admit any oppression of inferiors, being founded solely on laudable and virtuous opinions. Distinctions derived from fortune only, are those which always outrage nature, and often virtue.

In general, the competitors at the great regatas are chosen from among these families of reputation. As soon as they are fixed upon for this exploit, they spend the intermediate time in preparing themselves for it, by a daily, assiduous, and fatiguing exercise. If they are in service, their masters during that time not only give them their liberty, but also augment their wages. This custom would seem to indicate, that they look upon them as persons consecrated to the honour of the nation, and under a sort of obligation to contribute to its glory.

At last the grand day arrives. Their relations assem ble together; they encourage the heroes, by calling to their minds the records of their families; the women present the oar, beseeching them, in an epic tone, to remember that they are the sons of famous men, whose steps they will be expected to follow this they do with as much solemnity as the Spartan women presented the shield to their sons, bidding them either return with or upon it. Religion, as practised among the lower class of people, has its share in the preparation for this enterprise. They cause masses to be said; they make vows to some particular church; and they arm their boats for the contest with the images of those saints who are most in vogue. Sorcerers are not forgotten upon this occasion. For gondoliers who have lost the race often declare, that witchcraft had been practised against them, or certainly they must have won the day. Such a supposition prevents a poor fellow from thinking ill of himself, an opinion that might be unfavourable to him another time.

The