of the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence are important. By the treaty of Versailles, 1783, it was provided that "the navigation of the Mississippi shall forever remain free and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States." But the United States afterwards acquired Louisiana and Florida; and, the stipulations as to British subjects not being renewed in the treaty of Ghent, 1814, the United States maintain that the right of navigating the Mississippi is vested exclusively in their citizens. As to the St. Lawrence, after disputes for a long period between Great Britain and the United States, the right of free navigation for purposes of commerce was secured to the United States by the treaty of Washington, 1871. There are some waters, such as the Bosphorus and the Suez Canal, which are subject to peculiar engagements by treaty or agreement. But as a rule it may be said that in time of peace the territorial waters of a state are open to foreigners for commercial purposes, subject to observance of any rules as to police, pilotage, etc., imposed by the state. For instance, a system of compulsory pilotage is in existence in many ports, and a vessel refusing to conform to the pilotage regulations might incur serious liabilities. Most of the general law of England on this subject is contained in Part V. of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854. Tolls may be imposed by the state upon foreigners. This right is expressly recognized in most commercial treaties. A notable instance was the claim of Denmark to charge what were called the "Sound dues" from all vessels passing Elsinore, though the Sound was not strictly her territorial water. The right was not universally recognized, though it had prescription in its favor, and was invariably paid. In 1857 the dues were abolished, and compensation paid to Denmark for the loss of her alleged right. (J. W.†) NAVIGATORS' ISLANDS, or SAMOA, a group in the Southern Pacific, 420 miles northeast of the Fiji Islands, lying between 13° 30′ and 14° 20′ S. lat., and between 169° and 173° W. long. It numbers in all thirteen islands, but most of these are little more than barren rocks, and three only-Sawaii (Pola), Upolu (Oyalava), and Tutuila (Mauna)-are large enough to be of any importance. Sawaii (700 square miles) is almost entirely occupied by lofty and barren moun tains. It has no rivers or streams, the water filtering away through the porous soil; and there is but one harbor. Upolu (550 square miles) is also mountainous, but it is well-wooded and fertile, and possesses several considerable streams. Apia, the chief town, lies at the head of an oval bay on the north coast. Since 1879 it has been under a municipality directed by the consuls of Germany, Great Britain, and the United States. Tutuila (55 square miles, 17 miles long and 5 broad) is almost cut in two by the harbor of Pago-pago (Pango-pango), one of the best in the South Pacific. In general character the island is like Upolu. The Samoans are physically a fine race of men, and those on Upolu are all nominally Christian; but they discover a great lack of industry and perseverance. Both Upolu and to some extent Tutuila have attracted a considerable number of American and European (mostly German) capitalists, and a large portion of the land has passed into the hands of foreign residents (who number about three hundred). The bulk of the foreign trade belongs to the successors of the famous Hamburg firm of J. C. Godeffroy & Son. Cotton, cocoa-nuts, and breadfruit are cultivated for export, and maize, sugar, coffee, etc., for local consumption. Copra or cobra (ie., dried cocoa-nuts) is the most important article of trade. In 1881 the planters had about 1800 laborers from the Line Islands, New Britain, New Hebrides, etc., the Samoans being too independent to hire themselves out. A series of petty wars, continued with little intermission from 1868, has greatly interfered with the prosperity of the native population, whose numbers have decreased from 56,600 in 1840 to 35,000 in 1872, and 30,000 in 1880. The Samoan group are possibly the Baumann's Islands of the Dutchman Roggeveen (1722); but it was Bougainfles des Navigateurs, owing to the skill with which the nayille who made them definitely known and who called them tives managed their canoes. At Asu or Massacre Bay La Pérouse lost two of his assistants-De Lamanon and De Langle-and a boat's crew. Christianity was introduced by John Williams in 1830. See Meade, New Zealand and the South Sea Islands (1870), which has views of Pango-Pango and Apia; Dr. Forbes in Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., 1877; Journal des Museums Godefroy, Hamburg, 1871-74. NAVY. 66 comprised many private ships pressed into the king's service. A fleet of Edward the Confessor in 1049 consisted partly of "king's ships," partly of "people's ships.' In the Black Book of the Admiralty (which is a collection of sea-laws and customs drawn up for the use of the judge of the Court of Admiralty) it is provided that in case a man be indicted that he hath broken the arrest of his ship, arrested for the king's service, and be thereof convicted by twelve men, he shall lose his ship unless he obtaineth pardon of the king or the high admiral." Richard I. at Grimsby expressly combated by an ordinance the notion that ships were not liable to be pressed; and in a mandate of Sir Thomas Beaufort, admiral of England, Ireland, and Aquitania, temp. Hen. IV., are to be found instructions to his lieutenant of the North to arrest twenty-four vessels for service abroad, "upon certain weighty matters. Orders were sent at the same time to press mariners for one of the king's barges. THE beginnings of the British navy may be traced back to the long-continued struggle of Alfred and his successors with Danish invaders and pirates. Alfred has been called the first English admiral, as he was, it is supposed, the first English sovereign who commanded his own fleet in battle; and it was still to check these marauders, and protect the coasts of the kingdom, that William I., in 1066, established the Cinque Ports, and gave them certain privileges, on condition of their furnishing 52 ships, with 24 men in each, for fifteen days, in cases of emergency. We should not, perhaps, be far amiss in dating the period of English naval architecture from the Conquest; but there is little to record of the navy till the period of the French wars. In these very numerous fleets were sometimes engaged. King John is said to have fitted out 500 ships in 1213 against Philip of France; and in 1293, in the reign of Edward I., a battle took place in mid Channel where both the French and English fleets met in force, and about 240 ships of the former were In an action with the French fleet off the harbor of captured. In the reign of John a close approach was Sluys (1340), Edward III. is said to have slain 30,000 made to a regular naval establishment, and encourage- of the enemy, and to have taken 200 great ships, "in ment given to foreign commerce by a declaration of one of which only there were 400 dead bodies." safe-conduct to all foreign merchants to pass to or re-writers agree in describing the battle as one of the pass from England. most sanguinary and desperate sea-fights ever known. There cannot be any doubt that the earlier fleets The same monarch, at the siege of Calais, is stated to All Paule dont William Payne est vj. Mariners. have blockaded that port with 730 sail, having on vj. li. xiijs. iiijd. La Carrake appellee le vj. li. xiijs. iiijd. La Carrak appellee le vj. li. vj. li. li. Andrewe dont John Thornyng est vj. Mariners. xiijs. iiijd. La Carrak appellee le vj. Mariners. Marie dont William Richeman est vj. Mariners. Marie dont William Hethe est vj. Mariners. George dont John Mersh est Maistr' vj. Mariners. The earlier and middle parts of the reign of Edward III. were particularly famous for the power of the English fleet, and for the dread which it inspired. After a splendid victory over the Spanish fleet in 1350, the title of "king of the sea" was bestowed on the sovereign. Towards the end of that reign, how-vj. ever, naval as well as other affairs were neglected, the seas were left unguarded, the coasts were insulted, and acts of piracy were committed in English waters which vj. li. xiijs. iiijd. La Carrak appellee le a few years before had been impossible. Complaints were loud and frequent. The duke of Lancaster, Edward's brother, was charged with having misspent The remainder, to the masters of which pensions a sum of money granted to him for the guardianship ballyngers, some with three, and others two mariners were thus granted, consist of 17 "niefs, barges, and of the seas, and the anger of the Commons, unable to vent itself upon him, expended itself in a successful only. But history informs us that about this time impeachment of some of the king's ministers. In the Henry embarked an army of 25,000 men at Dover on next reign attempts were made to improve matters; board of 1500 sail of ships, two of which carried purbut, notwithstanding the levies from the Cinque Ports ple sails, embroidered with the arms of England and and other towns, the naval force in 1378 was insuffi- other his "Saloon," as typical of his keeping his France, one styled the "King's Chamber," the cient to keep even English waters free from pirates, and it was due to the private exertions of John Phil court at sea, which he considered as a part of his dominions. pot, a London merchant, who fitted out a squadron at his own expense, that John Mercer, a celebrated Scot-tained in the Black Book of the Admiralty, lay it The general orders for the admiral of a fleet, contish pirate, was captured and his career ended. Ply- down that "the admirall ought by his office to elect mouth and Hastings were burned, Winchelsea was attacked, and two descents were made, with much and order for the king's person, if he be present, damage, upon the Isle of Wight. In one of these de- otherwise for his lieutenant, the best and most able scents the French possessed themselves of most of the shipp of the kingdome, which shall be called the chamisland, but were finally driven to their ships by Sir ber of the king or of his lieutenant; and if the king Hugh Tyrrel, governor of Carisbrooke, and " then the Comptroller of his household is to present a spur of incredible sharpness. Return expeditions were make choice of some of the best shipps of the whole made to French and Spanish towns by the English, fleete (that is to say) one shipp for the Hall, another who, however, acted rather in the privateer capacity for the Wardrobe, the third for the Larder, and the of men who had to take the law into their own hands fourth for the Kitchen. Froissart, writing of the than as authorized warriors of the English king. battle of L'Espagnols sur Mer, in 1350, speaks of a ship called "la Salle du Roi, où tous ses hôtels written in the early part of the reign of Henry VI. étoient." It would appear from a very curious poem,1 (between 1426 and 1438), that the navy of his predethen reduced to the same state in which it had been cessor was considerable, but that, by neglect, it was during the preceding reigns. Naval affairs improved under Henry IV., and the reign of Henry V. was most glorious in maintaining the naval superiority over the fleets of France. From a letter of this sovereign to his lord chancellor, dated 12th August, 1417, discovered by Samuel Lysons among the records in the Tower, and of which the following is a copy, it would appear that there was something like an established royal navy in his reign, independently of the shipping furnished by the Cinque Ports and the merchants, for the king's own use, on occasion of any particular expedition. The letter appears to have been written nine days after the surrender of the castle of Touque, near Honfleur, in Normandy, whence it is dated. be been written, it appears from the parliament roll (20th Shortly after the time when this poem must have Henry VI., 1442) that an armed naval force, consisting only of eight large ships, with smaller vessels to attend them, was to be collected from the ports of. London, Bristol, Dartmouth, Hull, Newcastle, Winchelsea, Plymouth, Falmouth, etc.; and, of course, the royal ships of 1417, the names of which “Au revérend pere en Dieu l'Evesque de Duresmere Chanceller are contained in the foregoing schedule, were then d'Angleterre. either gone to decay or dispersed. We are not to judge of the size of the ships from the few mari"By the KyngWorshipful fader yn God We sende you closed withinners appointed to each. These were merely the shipthis letter a cedule conteyning the names of certein Mais- keepers, or harbor-duty men, placed on permanent tres for owr owne grete Shippes Carrakes Barges and Balyn- pay, to keep the ships in a condition fit for sea gers to the whiche Maistres We have granted annuitees when wanted. unto eche of the said Maistres ye do make under owr grete seel beyng in yowre warde owr letters patentes severales in forme after th' effect and pourport of owr said grante. Yeven under owr signet atte owr Castle of Touque the xij. day of August." such as is appointed upon eche of hem in the same Cedule The classes of ships and vessels mentioned in the to take yerely of owre grante while that us lust at owr Ex-records of what may be called the first period of the chequer of Westin. at the termes of Michelmasse and Ester British navy are very numerous, varying with the by even porcions. Wherefore We wol and charge yow that use for which they were designed. Thus there were 'cogs," or large, swift vessels, sometimes of 250 tons, carrying 130 seamen besides archers and soldiers; "barges," or small cogs, which carried 60 to 80 men; "balingers, or boats resembling moderu barges; "caraks," large vessels, chiefly used in Continental navies; crayers," transport vessels, seldom over 60 boats, with 30 men, which were occasionally impressed tons; doggers and lodeships," fishing and pilot into the king's service; "fluves," two-masted vessels, Extract from the Schedule contained in the preceding Letter. vj. li. xiijs. iiijd. La Grande Nief appelle) vj. Mariners T'he [or "Jehu"] dont John Wil-po'lasauf garde liam est Maistre vj. li. xijs. iiijd. La Trinate Royale dont Steph' Thomas est Maistre deinz Hannill. vj. li. xiijs. iiijd. La Holy Gost dont Jor- vj. Mariners. 289 used for conveyance of troops (Edward III. commanded the burgesses of Kingston-upon-Hull to build foundation of the British navy as a permanent or him a fluve"); "galleys' Henry VIII. may justly be said to have laid the boats, cargo or store ships. There were also "lynes," ford, Woolwich, and Portsmouth; he appointed cerand "galiots persouers," and "pikards," or large boats. "hoc- standing force. He established the dockyards at Deptnaces, with 35 men, figured at Sluys, and at the bat- the navy, and settled the rank and pay of admirals, tle of L'Espagnols sur Mer in 1350; and in 1339 two vice-admirals, and inferior officers, thus creating a na"Pin- tain commissioners to superintend the civil affairs of **espinaces defence of Southampton. were given to Sir Richard Talbot for the tional navy, and raising the officers to a separate and then were-the vice-admiral of England, master of the ordnance, surveyor of the marine causes, treasurer, distinct profession. The principal officers of the navy comptroller, general surveyor of the victualling, clerk of the ships, and clerk of the stores. Each of these officers had his particular duties, but they met at their office on Tower Hill once a week, to consult, and make their reports to the lord high admiral. Henry also esat Deptford, Hull, and Newcastle, for the improvement tablished the fraternities or guilds of the Trinity House of navigation and the encouragement of commerce, and built the castles of Deal, Walmer, Sandgate, Hurst Castle, etc., for the protection of his fleet and of the coast. state. navy: Tons. Henry Grace de Dieu...1,500 Sovereign It is very probable that, until English merchants engaged in the Mediterranean trade, and the attention of the Government was turned, in the reign of Henry VII. (about 1496), to imitate Portugal in making foreign discovery, under the skilful seaman Sebastian Cabot, very little was added to the capacity or the power of British ships of war. a ship called the In his reign was built that deserved the name of a ship of war, if it was not Great Harry," the first on record the first exclusively appropriated to the service of the This is the ship which Camden called the Henry Grace de Dieu," but erroneously,-the vessel so named not having been built till the reign of Henry VIII. The "Great Harry' £14,000; there is reason to suppose that she was re- navy consisted of about 50 ships and vessels of differis stated to have cost named the "Regent" on the accession of Henry VIII. ent sizes, the former from 1000 to 150 tons, and the At the death of Henry VIII. in 1547, the royal We now come to that period in which England latter down to 20 tons, making in the whole about might be truly said to possess a military marine. 12,000 tons, and manned by about 8000 mariners, solSome curious details have been preserved in the Pepy-diers, gunners, etc. sian collection at Magdalene College, Cambridge, from which papers it appears that in the thirteenth year of the seas should claim all that was most heroic in of Henry VIII. the following constituted the royal England's most heroic age. everything was leading up to a time when the perils Thus, as has been well said, his son Edward little alteration seems to have taken In the short reign of Tons. place in the state and condition of the royal navy. But 550 his father for the civil government of naval affairs were 800 the regulations which had been made in the reign of 400 revised, arranged, and turned into ordinances, which 240 form the basis of all the subsequent instructions given 250 to the commissioners for the management of the civil There were besides two row-barges of 60 tons each, lord high admiral nobly maintained the title assumed 180 affairs of the navy. In the reign of Mary the tonnage making in all 16 ships and vessels, measuring 7260 by England of Sovereign of the Seas, by compelling of the navy was reduced to about 7000 tons; but her The "Henry Grace de Dieu" is stated in all other Philip of Spain to strike his flag that was flying at accounts, and with more probability, to have been only 1000 tons. This ship, the better-known "Great to marry Queen Mary, by firing a shot at the Spanish the main-topmast head, though on his way to England Harry," appears to have been begun at Erith, in Au;sisting of 160 sail, should strike their colors and lower gust or September, 1512, to replace the "Regent, admiral. He also demanded that the whole fleet, conwhich was burned in the former month in action with the French fleet, when carrying the flag of the lord high admiral. There is a drawing of the ship in the Pepysian she carried fourteen guns on the lower deck, twelve on papers. From these papers it the main deck, eighteen on the quarter-deck and poop, eighteen on the lofty forecastle, and ten in her sternports, making altogether seventy-two guns. Her regular establishment of men is said to have consisted of 349 soldiers, 301 mariners, and 50 gunners, making altogether 700 men. were awkward to manoeuvre: on the appearance of The war ships of this period the French fleet at St. Helens, the "Great Harry, Mary Rose Barbara Mary George Henry Hampton tons. 400 Great Nicholas............ 800 Less Bark... 400 appears that their top-sails, as a homage to the English flag, before tions for its preservation, and for securing adequate |