curved lines, producing beautiful examples of fluidal in 1349, and was buried in the graveyard of the Franstructure (see GEOLOGY, vol. x. p. 205, fig. 2). Spheru- ciscan convent. Some writers assert that he was reclites are not uncommon in obsidian, and are sometimes onciled to Rome, and in proof of submission sent the sufficiently large to impart a distinctly globular struc- official seal to William Farinerius, who had been apture to the stone. Other varieties are rich in micro- pointed general of the order by the pope; others scopic pores, or may even present to the naked eye a declare that, like Cesena and Bonagratia, he died exvesicular texture. It is notable that certain kinds of communicate. obsidian possess a peculiar metallic sheen, which has been attributed by Professor Zirkel to the presence of minute ovoid inclosures, and not to a porous structure, as had been previously suspected. There can be no doubt that obsidian has been formed by the rapid cooling of a felspathic lava. It is found chiefly in Iceland, the Lipari Islands, Melos and other isles of the Greek archipelago, the Caucasus, Siberia, Mexico, Peru, and New Zealand.

the other, and we can reason with word or thought Occam's genuine writings on the controversy appeared just as the algebraist can do with his signs. Univer- after the Defensor Pucis. In the Opus nonaginta sals, said Occam, bore the same relation to the infinite number of individuals that signs do to the things signified. The universal, be it a thought or a word, is nothing but a sign which by suppositio is beforehand taken to denote a number of individual things, and is thus the common noun denoting them all.

dierum (1330–33), and in its successors, the Tractatus de dogmatibus Johannis XXII. pape (1333-34), the Compendium errorum Johannis XXII. papæ (133538), and in the Defensorium contra errores Johannis XXII. papa (1335-39), Occam only incidentally expounds his views as a publicist; the books are mainly. This way of explaining community of knowledge some of them entirely, theological, but they served and of defending nominalism went a good deal deeper, the purpose of the emperor and of his party, because and became a theory of knowledge which led Occam they cut at the root of the spiritual as well as of the into what was called theological skepticism. Most of temporal supremacy of the pope. In his writing, Super the adherents of the mystical schools of the Middle potestate summi pontificis octo quastionum decisiones · Ages held that the doctrines of the church were isolated (1339-42), Occam attacks the temporal supremacy truths, each of which was to be received by a species of the pope, insists on the independence of kingly of enthusiastic intuition, and were incapable either of authority, which he maintains is as much an ordisystematic arrangement in a body of divinity or of nance of God as is spiritual rule, and discusses what being intelligibly comprehended by the mind. Before is meant by the statę. His views on the indepenOccam appeared, mystics taught a theory of theolog- dence of civil rule were even more decidedly exical skepticism which declared that the truths of the pressed in the Tractatus de jurisdictione imperatoris Christian faith were to be taken on trust, although in causis_matrimonialibus, in which, in spite of the the reason might find logical flaws in each one of them. mediæval idea that matrimony is a sacrament, he deOccam made this theological skepticism almost a commands that it belongs to the civil power to decide monplace by basing it on his theory of knowledge. cases of affinity and to state the prohibited degrees. All knowledge, he taught, contained a double inade- His last work, De, Electione Caroli VI., restates his quacy, which arose from the needs of thinking and of opinions upon temporal authority and adds little that expressing thought in language. Words were but is new. signs, inadequate representations of the thoughts they stood for, and the thoughts themselves were inadequate symbols used by suppositio instead of the individual objects which they represented. The real individual thing was apprehended by a vis intuitiva, in sense, vision, or touch, etc., but, when the mind begins to think or to argue, error may creep in, for thoughts are inadequate expressions, stereotyped aspects, and words are only signs of signs. Theological knowledge is like all other knowledge, theological argumentation has the inadequacy that belongs to every process of thought. The Centilogium Theologicum usually appended to Occam's Commentary on the Sentences of Peter the Lombard contains a consistent application of this theory of knowledge to theological dogmas, every one of which is shown to be irrational, but at the same time true in the vision of faith. The most interesting application of his method, however, is to be found in the Tractatus de Sacramento Altaris, in which, while accepting as a matter of faith the mediaval doctrine of the real presence, Occam shows that a much more rational theory might be propounded, and actually sets forth a theory of the Eucharist which was afterwards adopted almost verbatim by Luther, and which is now known as consubstantiation.

Occam was best known during his lifetime and in the succeeding centuries for the part he took in the prolonged contest between Louis of Bavaria and the papal curia. Louis had been legally elected emperor of Germany, but the pope, who claimed that his power to crown gave him the right to veto any election, refused to acknowledge Louis, and espoused the cause of his rival. The contest was prolonged during more than a quarter of a century, and its interest lies chiefly in the writings of a group of men who, sheltered at Munich, published their views on the relations between civil and religious authority, and on the rights of nations. The most remarkable of the many publications which this controversy called forth was undoubtedly the Defensor Pacis of Marsilius of Padua, which appeared in 1324 or 1326, and which was the prediction of the modern, as Dante's De Monarchia (1311-13) was the epitaph of the mediæval state. Occam published several treatises in which, while he confines himself more to the details of the controversy going on before him, there are evident traces of sympathy with the opinions of Marsilius. Pope Clement VI. has left on record that Marsilius was taught his errors by and got them from" William of Occam; if this be true, the Italian jurist must have had private intercourse with the great English schoolman, for all

In all his writings against Pope John XXII. Occam inveighs against the pope's opinions and decisions on the value of the life of poverty in the practice of religion. The Compendium errorum selects four papal constitutions which involved a declaration against evangelical poverty, and insists that they are full of heresy. Occam was a sincere Franciscan, and believed with his master that salvation was won through rigid imitation of Jesus in His poverty and obedience, and up to his days it had always been possible for Franciscans to follow the rules of their founder within his order. But Pope John XXII. took_advantage of a dispute between the more zealous Franciscans and others who had departed from the strict rule of their founder to condemn the doctrine of evangelical poverty, and to excommunicate those who held it. This made many Franciscans question whether, when the pope set his opinion against that of Francis their founder, the pope could be infallible; and some of them were so convinced of the necessity of evangelical poverty for a truly Christian life that they denounced the pope when he refused them leave to practice it as Antichrist, or the being who stood between Christians and the means of holy living. After Occam's days the opinions of Francis prevailed in many quarters, but the genuine Franciscans had no place within the church. They were Fraticelli, Beghards, Lollards, or other confraternities unrecognized by the church, and in steady opposition to her government.

There is no good monograph on Occam. For an account of his logic, see Prantl, Geschichte der Logik (1855-70); for his philosophy, see Stöckl, Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters (1864-66), vol. ii.; for his publicist writings, see Riez-ler, Die literarischen Widersacher der Päpste zur Zeit Ludwig, des Baiers (1874). See also Lindsay's article on "Occam and his connection with the Reformation," in the Brit. Quart (T. M. L.)

Review, July, 1872.

OCEAN. See SEA.

OCEANIA. See POLYNESIA.

OCELOT. The smaller spotted or striped species of the genus Felis (see MAMMALIA, vol. xv. p. 441), of both the Old and the New World, are commonly called tiger-cats. Of these, one of the best-known and beautifully marked forms, peculiar to the American continent, has received the name of Ocelot (Felis pardalis), though zoologists are still undecided whether under this designation several distinct species have not been included, or whether all the ocelots are to be referred to a single species showing great individual or racial variation. Their fur has always a tawny yel

low or reddish-gray ground color, and is marked with black spots, aggregated in streaks and blotches, or in elongated rings inclosing an area which is rather darker than the general ground color. They range through the wooded parts of tropical America, from Arkansas in the north as far south as Paraguay, and in their

Ocelot.

burg, which he was compelled to forsake when, in January, 1547, the city was occupied by the imperial forces. He found an asylum in England, where he was made a prebendary of Canterbury, received a pension from Edward VI.'s privy purse, and composed his capital work, the Tragedy. This remarkable performance, orig

inally written in Latin, is extant only in the translation of Bishop Ponet, a splendid specimen of nervous English. The conception is highly dramatic: the form is that of a series of dialogues. Lucifer, enraged at the spread of Christ's kingdom, convokes the fiends in council, and resolves to set up the pope as Antichrist. The state, represented by the emperor Phocus, is persuaded to connive at the pope's assumption of spiritual authority; the other churches are intimidated into acquiescence; Lucifer's projects seem fully accomplished, when Heaven raises up Henry VIII. and his son for their overthrow. The conception bears a remarkable resemblance to that of Paradise Lost; and it is nearly certain that Milton, whose sympathies with the Italian Reformation were so strong, must have been acquainted with it. Several of Ochino's Prediche were also translated into English by a lady, Anna Cook, afterwards wife of Sir Nicholas Bacon; and he published numerous controversial treatises on the Continent. In 1553 the accession of Mary drove him from England. He became pastor of the Italian congregation at Zurich, composed principally of refugees from Locarno, and continued to write books which, repeating the history of his early works, gave increasing evi dence of his alienation from the strict ortho

habits resemble the other smaller members of the cat | doxy around him. The most important of these was tribe, being ready climbers and exceedingly bloodthirsty.

the Labyrinth, a discussion of the freedom of the will, covertly assailing the Calvinistic doctrine of OCHINO, BERNARDINO (1487-1564), Italian Re- predestination. In 1563 the long-gathering storm former, was born at Siena in 1487. At an early age he of obloquy burst upon the occasion of the publicaentered the order of Observantine Friars, and rose to tion of his Thirty Dialogues, in one of which his be its general, but, craving a stricter rule, transferred adversaries maintained that he had justified polygamy himself in 1534 to the newly-founded order of Capu- under color of a pretended refutation. His dialogues chins. He had already become famous for zeal and on divorce and the Trinity were also obnoxious. No eloquence, and was the intimate friend of the noble explanation was allowed. Ochino was banished from Spaniard Juan de Valdès, of Bembo, Vittoria Co- Zurich, and, after being refused a shelter by other lonna, Pietro Martire, Carnesecchi, and others destined Protestant cities, directed his steps towards Poland, to incur the suspicion of heresy, either from the mod- at that time the most tolerant state in Europe. He eration of their characters or from the evangelical tinc- had not resided there long when an edict appeared ture of their theology. In 1538 he was elected vicar- banishing all foreign dissidents. Flying from the general of his order; in 1539, urged by Bembo, he country, he encountered the plague at Pinczoff; three visited Venice and delivered a remarkable course of of his four children were carried off; and he himself, sermons, showing a decided tendency to the doctrine worn out by misfortune, expired in solitude and obof justification by faith, which appears still more evi- scurity at Schlakau in Moravia, about the end of 1564. dently in his dialogues published the same year. He His reputation among Protestants was at the time so was suspected and denounced, but nothing ensued until bad that he was charged with the authorship of the the establishment of the Inquisition in Rome in June, treatise De tribus Impostoribus, as well as with having 1542, at the instigation of the austere zealot Caraffa. carried his alleged approval of polygamy into practice Ochino almost immediately received a citation to It was reserved for his recent biographer Dr. Benrath Rome, and set out to obey it about the middle of to justify him and to represent him as a fervent evan August. According to his own statement, he was gelist and at the same time as a speculative thinker deterred from presenting himself at Rome by the with a passion for free inquiry, always learning and warnings of Cardinal Contarini, whom he found at unlearning and arguing out difficult questions with Bologna, dying of poison administered by the reac- himself in his Dialogues, frequently without attaining tionary party. He turned aside to Florence, and after to any absolute conviction. The general tendency of some hesitation escaped across the Alps to Geneva. his mind, nevertheless, was counter to tradition, and He was cordially received by Calvin, and published he is remarkable as resuming in his individual history within two years several volumes of Prediche, contro- all the phases of Protestant theology from Luther to versial tracts rather than sermons, explaining and vin- Socinus. He is especially interesting to Englishmen dicating his change of religion. He also addressed for his residence in England, and the probable influreplies to Vittoria Colonna, Tolomei, and other Italian ence of more than one of his writings upon Milton. sympathizers who were reluctant to go to the same All attainable information respecting Ochino is collected length as himself. His own breach with the Roman in Dr. Benrath's excellent German biography, translated Church was decisive and irreparable, and illustrated into English by Miss Helen Zimmern, with a preface by the justice of Luther's description of justification by the Rev. W. Arthur, London, 1876. faith alone as the articulus stantis vel cadentis ecclesiæ, OCHRE. See PIGMENTS. the vital point whose acceptance or rejection drew everything else along with it. In 1545 he became minister of the Italian Protestant congregation at Augs

(R. G.)

OCKLEY, SIMON (1678-1720), Orientalist, was born at Exeter in 1678. He was educated at Queens' Coilege, Cambridge, and graduated B.A. in 1697, M.A.

O'CLERY, MICHAEL (born c. 1575). See CELTIC LITERATURE, vol. v. p. 267.

n 1701, and B.D. in 1710; he became fellow of Jesus vocate, too, he stood in the very highest rank; in College and vicar of Swavesey, and in 1711 was chosen mere oratory he was surpassed by Plunket, and in rheArabic professor of the university. He had a large torical gifts by Bushe, the only speakers to be named family, and his latter days were embittered by pecuniary with him in his best days at the Irish bar; but his embarrassments, which form the subject of a chapter style, if not of the most perfect kind, and often disfigin D'Israeli's Calamities of Authors. The preface to ured by decided faults, was marked by a peculiar subthe second volume of his History of the Saracens is tlety and manly power, and produced great and strikdated from Cambridge Castle, where he lay a prisoner ing effects. On the whole, in the art of winning over for debt. He died in the year 1720. His chief work juries he had scarcely an equal in the law courts. is The History of the Saracens, in 2 vols. 8vo, 1708-18, To understand, however, O'Connell's greatness we which long enjoyed a great reputation; unfortunately must look to the field of Irish politics. From early Ockley took as his main authority a MS. in the Bod-manhood he had turned his mind to the condition of feian of Pseudo-Wákidí's Futúḥ al-Shám, which is Ireland and the mass of her people. The worst rather historical romance than history. severities of the penal code had been, in a certain measure, relaxed, but the Catholics were still in a state of vassalage, and they were still pariahs compared with O'CONNELL, DANIEL (1775-1847), born on 6th the Protestants. The rebellion of 1798 and the union August, 1775, near Cahirciveen, a small town in had dashed the hopes of the Catholic leaders, and Kerry, Ireland, was sprung from a race the heads of their prospects of success seemed very remote when, which had been Celtic chiefs, had lost their lands in in the first years of the present century, the still the wars of Ireland, and had felt the full weight of the unknown lawyer took up their cause. Up to this harsh penal code which long held the Catholic Irish juncture the question had been in the hands of Grattan down. His ancestors in the 18th century had sent re- and other Protestants, and of a small knot of Catholic cruits to the famous brigade of Irish exiles in the ser- nobles and prelates; but their efforts had not accomvice of France, and those who remained at home either plished much, and they aimed only at a kind of comlived as tenants on the possessions of which they had promise, which, while conceding their principal claims, once been lords, or gradually made money by smug- would have placed their church in subjection to the gling, a very general calling in that wild region. Thus state. O'Connell inaugurated a different policy, and he inherited from his earliest years, with certain tra- had soon given the Catholic movement an energy it ditions of birth and high station, a strong dislike of had not before possessed. Himself a Catholic of British rule in Ireland and of the dominant owners of birth and genius, unfairly kept back in the race of life, the soil, a firm attachment to his proscribed faith, and he devoted his heart and soul to the cause, and his habitual skill in evading the law; and these influences character and antecedents made him the champion may be traced in his subsequent career. O'Connell who ultimately assured its triumph. Having no symlearned the rudiments at a school in Cork, one of the pathy with the rule of "the Saxon," he saw clearly first which the state in those evil days allowed to be how weak was the hold of the Government and the opened for Catholic teaching; and a few years after- Protestant caste on the vast mass of the Catholic wards he became a student, as was customary with nation; having a firm faith in the influence of his Irish youth of his class, in the colleges of St. Omer church, he perceived that it might be made an instruand Douai. His great abilities, it is said, were there ment of immense political power in Ireland; and, perceived by the principals, and their peculiar train- having attained a mastery over the lawyer's craft, he ing undoubtedly left a permanent mark on his mind knew how a great popular movement might be so conand nature, for the casuistry and the diction of the ducted as to elude the law and yet be in the highest Roman priesthood distinctly appear in his speeches degree formidable. With these convictions, he formed and writings, and he had much of the ecclesiastic in the bold design of combining the Irish Catholic milhis manners and bearing. These years, too, in France lions, under the superintendence of the native priesthad, in another way, a decided effect in forming his hood, into a vast league against the existing order of judgment on political questions of high moment. He things, and of wresting the concession of the Catholic was an eye-witness on more than one occasion of the claims from every opposing party in the state by an folly and excesses of the French Revolution; and these agitation, continually kept up, and embracing almost scenes not only increased his love for his church, but the whole of the people, but maintained within constrongly impressed him with that dread of anarchy, of stitutional limits, though menacing and shaking the popular movements ending in bloodshed, and of com- frame of society. He gradually succeeded in carrying munistic and socialistic views which characterized him out his purpose: Catholic associations, at first small, in after life. To these experiences, too, we may partly but slowly assuming larger proportions, were formed ascribe the reverence for law, for the rights of prop-in different parts of the country; attempts of the erty, and for the monarchical form of government Government and of the local authorities to put them which he appears to have sincerely felt; and, dema-down were skilfully baffled by legal devices of many gogue as he became in a certain sense, they gave his kinds; and at last, after a conflict of years, all mind a deep Conservative tinge. In 1798 he was Catholic Ireland was arrayed to a man in an organcalled to the bar of Ireland, and though, as professing ization of enormous power, that demanded its rights a still degraded creed, he was shut out from the chance with no uncertain voice. O'Connell, having long of promotion, though he could not even obtain a silk before attained an undisputed and easy ascendency, gown, and though, what was of more importance, he stood at the head of this great national movement was subjected in a variety of ways to caste hostility, he but it will be observed that, having been controlled rose before long to the very highest eminence among from first to last by himself and the priesthood, it had contemporary lawyers and advocates. This position little in common with the mob rule and violence which was in the main due to a dexterity in conducting causes, he had never ceased to regard with aversion. His and especially in examining witnesses, in which he election for Clare in 1828 proved the forerunner of had no rival at the Irish bar, and here his profound the inevitable change, and the Catholic claims were sagacity, observant cunning, and intuitive knowledge granted the next year, to the intense regret of the of the native character enabled him to accomplish Protestant Irish, by a Government avowedly hostile wonders, even at the present day not wholly forgotten. was, however, a thorough lawyer besides, inferior in scientific learning to two or three of his most conspicuous rivals, but well read in every department of law, and especially a master in all that relates to criminal and constitutional jurisprudence. As an ad

He

to the last, but unable to withstand the overwhelming pressure of a people united to insist on justice. The result, unquestionably, was almost wholly due to the energy and genius of a single man, though the Catholic question would have been settled, in all probability, in the course of time; and it must be added that

O'Connell's triumph, which showed what agitation years to demand repeal, and regarded it as rather could effect in Ireland, was far from doing his country a means than an end, he was throughout life an unmixed good.