vides evening classes in all departments. These Courses are graded, some of them extending over three years. The institute carries on, furthermore, an important educational work through the means of free public lectures and concerts. The number of students in attendance in the several departments in 1902 was 1200; in the evening courses, 2000. The library, containing 30,000 volumes, is especially strong in works on art, science, and technology. The president of the institute from its foundation, and to whom its organization and the development of its courses must be largely ascribed, is James MacAlister.

DREYFUS, drâ'fus', ALFRED (1859–).

A

French artillery officer, who was brought into prominence as the central figure in one of the most celebrated cases of modern political history: He was born in Mülhausen, Upper Alsace, of Jewish parentage, removed to Paris in 1874, studied at the Chaptal College and at SainteBarbe, entered the Ecole Polytechnique in 1878, and later attended the Ecole d'Application (school of applied gunnery). After serving as second lieutenant in the Thirty-first Regiment of artillery at Le Mans (1882-83), and in the Fourth Mounted Battery at Paris, he was ap pointed captain in the Twenty-first Regiment of artillery, September 12, 1889. On April 21, 1890, he entered the Ecole de Guerre, where he ranked among the leading ten of his class. Within a year after leaving this institution, he received an appointment on the general staff. On October 15, 1894, Dreyfus was arrested on a charge of having sold military secrets to a

foreign power. The utmost secrecy was observed by the War Office in regard to the whole affair. Dreyfus was isolated in prison, and treated with great harshness. When he was tried, although

he was allowed counsel, the court was a secret one, and he was sentenced to military degradation and solitary confinement on the Ile du Diable, off the coast of French Guiana. On January 4, 1895, he was conducted by a military escort to the court-yard of the Ecole Militaire in Paris, and, in the presence of a great assembly of spectators, the stripes were torn from his

uniform, and his sword was broken. On March 10th he was transported to the Ile du Diable, where he was treated with severity, on one occasion being chained to his pallet for two months. He persistently denied his guilt, and this fact, together with the secrecy of the proceedings and the bitterness of the anti-Semitic agitation, led to a growing conviction in the minds of many that the real culprit had been shielded, and that it had been found convenient to put Dreyfus forward as a scapegoat.

The evidence used against Dreyfus was a memorandum, known as the bordereau, and the prosecution simply attempted to show that it was in the Captain's handwriting. It began, "Without news indicating that you wish to see me, I send you nevertheless, monsieur, some inportant information." Then followed a numbered list of documents relating to the frontier forts, artillery instructions to the general staff, etc. Naturally it was never made known how this document was obtained by the War Office, as it would have caused complications with a friendly Power; but it was supposed to have come through an Alsatian porter in the service

of Colonel von Schwarzkoppen, military attaché of the German Embassy. In May, 1896, another paper was brought to the War Office, and fell into the hands of Commandant Picquart. It bore the signature of Major Esterházy, an officer of doubtful character, and the handwriting corresponded exactly with that of the Dreyfus bordereau, while that of Dreyfus did not. Then began a remarkable series of attempts to bring to light and to suppress the truth. The most prominent defenders of Dreyfus were his brother Matthieu Dreyfus, the novelist Emile Zola, and M. Scheurer-Kestner, a member of the French Senate. A large part of the Liberal press also sided with the accused captain, and, during the later phases of the affair, his cause was adopted by the Socialists him were the anti-Semitic elements of France as a party issue for the time. Arrayed against and the powerful Nationalist influence, meaning by the latter all those who regarded the vindication of the honor of the army, always condemnation of Dreyfus as necessary for the dear to the hearts of Frenchmen. The War Office met the attacks of the friends of Dreyfus simply by asserting that the proceedings against him had been regular in every respect. There was a fixed purpose to prevent any discussion of the nature of the evidence or the facts of the case. Commandant Picquart, who showed an honest desire to bring out the truth, was made a lieutenant-colonel, and sent away on special service. Attempts were then made to compromise him by means of false dispatches, and he was finally removed from the active list of the army. On

new declaration was made in the Chamber of

July 7, 1898, the agitation having risen high, a Deputies by M. Cavaignac, Minister of War. He positively asserted that Dreyfus had been justly found guilty, and referred to certain documents

not hitherto mentioned in the case. Colonel Picquart challenged these proofs and declared that of the three documents upon which M. Cavaignac based his belief in the guilt of Dreyfus, two were irrelevant, and the third, the only one in which Dreyfus's name occurred, was a forgery. Six weeks later, Colonel Henry, who had been connected with the intelligence department of the War Office, confessed to having committed this forgery, and committed suicide. This led to a general readjustment in the organization of the general staff. General de Boisdeffre, chief nel Paty du Clam were removed from the of staff, resigned; Major Esterházy and Coloactive list, but still the War Office proclaimed its belief in the guilt of Captain Dreyfus. Colonel Picquart was imprisoned on a charge of communicating secret documents, late in November. On the 29th of the previous month, however, the Court of Cassation, the highest tribunal in France, had taken up the matter of revision, and, after several months' deliberation, ordered (June 3, 1899), a retrial by a court-martial. The proceedings against Picquart were subsequently quashed. The court-martial sat at Rennes from August 7 to September 9, 1899, and rendered a decision that Dreyfus was guilty, with extenuating circumstances. He was sentenced to imprisonment for ten years, from which the period of his previous confinement was to be deducted. The evidence at the trial was of the flimsiest character, as it had been from the beginning, but the determination to

protect the officers of the army at the expense of Dreyfus was maintained. The members of the court-martial united in a recommendation of mercy, and on September 19th the prisoner was pardoned by President Loubet.

The Dreyfus case was far-reaching in its effect upon French affairs. It divided and wrecked the Brisson Ministry of 1898; it seemed for a time likely to furnish a rallying point for monarchist agitation; it exposed a state of gross corruption in the French army; and it presented grave possibilities of trouble with Germany and Italy, which were the countries naturally suspected of the bribery of a French

officer. In 1896, both the German and Italian Governments had denied, through diplomatic channels, in the most emphatic manner, having had any dealings with Dreyfus. M. Zola was condemned to a year's imprisonment, July 18, 1898, for his protest against the travesty of justice involved in the whole management of the case, and went into exile to escape imprisonment. Esterházy, after he was dismissed from the service, went to London, and made a confession through the London Chronicle, June 2, 1899, that he wrote the bordereau by order of Colonel Sandherr, assistant chief of the intelligence department. This confession was ascribed by the anti-Dreyfus party to bribery by the friends of Dreyfus. The impression has generally prevailed among unprejudiced persons and in other countries than France, that Dreyfus was unfairly tried, unjustly convicted on manufactured evidence, and that justice was refused him by officers high in authority for personal and political reasons. In December, 1900, in order that the matter might be finally disposed of, an amnesty bill was passed by the Government relieving every one concerned of any further liability to criminal prosecution. This was opposed by the friends of Dreyfus, Picquart, and Zola, who demanded a full vindication. It was declared on behalf of the Government that the army had been so embittered by the affair that no court-martial could be depended on to give an unprejudiced verdict, and that, for the safety of France, all further agitation of the question

must cease.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Contemporary literature contains many discussions of the affair. An excellent review of the case up to that date appeared in the London Times for October 13, 1898. Captain Dreyfus, after his release, published the story of his experiences in a volume which appeared simultaneously in several countries. The English translation was entitled, Five Years of My Life (New York, 1901). He also published letters to his wife. translated by Moreau (London, 1899), and Conseil de guerre de Rennes (Paris, 1901). Consult, in addition: Barlow, History of the Dreyfus Case, from the Arrest of Captain Dreyfus in 1894 to the Flight of Esterházy in 1898 (London, 1898); Cony beare. The Dreyfus Case (London, 1898); Guyon. The Dreyfus Case (London, 1898); Zola. The Dreyfus Case (London, 1898): Steevens, The Tragedy of Dreyfus (London, 1899); in French, Marin. Dreyfus: Comptes-rendus officiels (Paris. 1897): Vanex, Dossier de l'affaire Dreyfus (Paris, 1898); Brez, Le solécisme du bordereau et les lettres de Dreyfus (Paris, 1898) Esterházy, Les dessous de l'affaire Dreyfus (Paris, 1898); Clémenceau, Vers la répara

tion (Paris, 1899); id., Contre la justice (Paris, 1900); Cornely, Notes sur l'affaire Dreyfus (Paris, 1898); Guyot, L'innocent et le traître: Dreyfus et Esterházy (Paris, 1898); Jaurès, Les preuves dans l'affaire Dreyfus (Paris, 1898); Villemar, Dreyfus intime (Paris, 1898). See ZOLA.

DREYSCHOCK, dri'shōk, ALEXANDER (181869). A Bohemian pianist, born at Zach, Bohemia. As a pupil of Tomaschek, at Prague, he developed a technique marvelous for his time. "The man has no left hand. He has two right hands," was J. B. Cramer's exclamation after hearing him play. In 1828 he began concert touring, and continued to do so successfully for twenty years. In 1862 he was appointed a professor in the Conservatory of Music at Saint Petersburg, where he remained until 1868, when failing health compelled him to go to Italy. His compositions are of the salon order and unimportant. He died in

Venice.

DREYSE, dri'ze, JOHANN NIKOLAUS VON (1787-1867). A German inventor. He was born in Saxony; served an apprenticeship with his father, a locksmith; and then worked for a time in a musket-factory in Paris. In 1814 he founded an ironware factory in Sömmerda and became interested in the manufacture of firearms. In

1827 he invented a muzzle-loading, and in 1836 a breech-loading needle gun, the adoption of which by the Prussian Army four years later led to his founding an extensive gun and ammunition factory. He was ennobled in 1864.

DRIFT (from AS. drifan, Icel. drifa, Goth. drieban, OHG. triban, Ger. treiban, to drive), or GLACIAL DRIFT. A name applied to glacial deposits in general that were formed during the Pleistocene period. The great ice-sheets which at that time covered the northern parts of North America, Europe, and Asia were efficient agents of erosion and transportation. Vast masses of loose materials, including earth, sand, and stones, were conveyed on their surface or in their lower portions, and on the retreat of the ice the materials were left behind as a compact, structureless deposit of variable thickness. The drift is variously called 'till,' 'boulder clay,' 'ground moraine,' and 'older diluvium.' It quite frequently occurs in ridges or hillocks (drumlins, kames. and eskers), in the formation of which the action of streams that resulted from the melting of the ice is apparent. The stones in drift have a characteristic appearance and surface. They are usually of oblong shape, highly polished, and have rounded edges. When the rock is fine-grained, numerous striæ may be seen running parallel to the longer axis of the fragment. Sometimes the stones have been transported long distances. The peculiar syenite known as laurvikite,' which oc curs in the vicinity of Laurvig, in southern Norway, has been found in the drift of Denmark, in Germany, and even in Yorkshire, England. Drift deposits, when separated by an intervening stratum of non-glacial material, show changing conditions as to the advance and retreat of the ice-sheet. See GLACIER: GLACIAL PERIOD; BOULDER CLAY: DRUMLIN; ESKER.

FIG. 3. DIAMOND

DRILL BIT.

Sectional

Rotary drills differ from percussion drills in the fact that the drill makes its way into the rock by a boring action produced by the axial rotation of the drill-rod. The most common form of rotary drill is the diamond drill. This machine consists of a hollow cylindrical bit having a cutting edge of diamonds (Fig. 3), which is revolved at the rate of from 200 to 400 revolutions per minute, by suitable machinery operated by steam or compressed air. The diamonds are set in the cutting edge of the bit, so as to project outward from its annular face and also slightly inside and outside its cylindrical sides. When the drill-rod with the bit attached is rotated and thrust forward, the bit cuts an annular hole in the rock, the drillings being removed from the hole by a constant stream of water, which is forced down the hollow drill-rod and emerges carrying the débris with it up through the narrow space between the outside of the drill-rod and the walls of the hole. Owing to the hollow bit, the nucleus of the hole bored is taken out as a solid core. This possibility of the diamond drill makes it a valuable tool for prospecting for minerals, or for determining the character of the material which will be met in sinking deep foundations or in driving tunnels. Another form of rotary drill which is employed in Europe for tunnel work is the Brandt hydraulic drill. The cutting edge of this drill consists of hardened steel teeth (Fig. 4). The bit is pressed against the rock by hydraulic pressure, and usually makes from seven to eight

FIG. 4. BRANDT ROTARY DRILL BIT.

Plan.

and for prospecting for minerals. For a concise history of the development of rock drills, consult Drinker, Tunneling, Explosive Compounds, and Rock Drills (New York, 1901).

DRILL (Dan. drille, bore, Dutch drillen, to bore). In agriculture, an implement employed for planting seeds or roots in regular rows. The act of 'drilling' is distinguished from hand or broadcast sowing. In gardening, drilling has been practiced everywhere from time immemorial, but its extension to field culture is of compara tively recent date. Jethro Tull invented a drilling machine in the early part of the eighteenth century, and did much to show its merits in the culture of grain and root crops. Since his time the use of this implement has become very general. A great variety of drills are now in use. Some of them are adapted to the distribution of fertilizer along with the seed. One great recommendation of drilling is that by means of it a considerable saving of seed is effected, and that especially with close planted crops, such as wheat, the seed is more regularly sown and better covered; a further advantage is that with crops which are cultivated between the drills it enables the farmer more readily to clean the land, both by the hand and by the horse hoe. Retention and absorption of the moisture is facilitated by keeping the soil stirred and pulverized, which can only be properly done where the crops have been sown in drills. See IMPLEMENTS, AGRICULTURAL.

DRILL. A general title for the various systems of exercises and methods of instruction by which organized bodies of men are made uniformly efficient and effective for the purposes of the organization of which they are a part. Specifically it has direct reference to the different details of training by which soldiers and sailors are organized and qualified for their duties. The various European manuals of drill

were based originally on the Prussian system of Frederick the Great, and have been adapted since to such particular needs of the nations as have been dictated by national evolution and the improved inventions of modern scientific warfare. See TACTICS, MILITARY; MANUAL OF ARMS.

In the United States Navy the drills are very numerous. In addition to the fleet or squadron drills, which comprise fleet tactics, battle tactics, and numerous special exercises, the drill of crews of ships comprise: clearing ship for action; general quarters (drill at stations for battle); fire quarters and fire drill; collision drill; battery drill, including drill at the heavy guns and secondary battery and supply of ammunition, instruction at the guns, etc.; torpedo drill and instruction: target practice (q.v.), with all calibres of guns, with full-calibre ammunition, sub-calibre ammunition, record practice, sea practice, small-arm practice, aiming drill, etc.; field-artillery drill with three-inch field guns; infantry drill, including manual of arms and tactics, and exercise as a landing party or body of infantry making a landing and then operating on shore; boat drills, exercise with oars, with sails and tactical drill; also many other special drills as coaling-ship drill, 'man overboard,' etc. In the older ship there are also sail drills, spar drills, etc. See GUNNERY; TACTICS, NAVAL.

DRILL. Any of several small gastropods which bore through the shells of other mollusks and suck out their juices, such as species of Natica, Purpura, Anachis, Astyris, Tritia, Ilyanassa, and others. The most numerous in the

waters off the east coast of the United States, and most troublesome, is Urosalpinx cinerea, which is exceedingly destructive of oysters on cultivated beds. It is this, says Ingersoll, which is the common 'drill'

A DRILL.

a

of the oysterShell and Egg-capsules (a) of Urosal beds; and it is pinx cinerea. its eggs, laid in small vase-shaped capsules, which are often found in groups attached to the under surface of stones. The natural home of the drill is

the tide pools and weedy borders of rocky shallows, where barnacles, hydroids, anemones, rock-loving limpets, and other associated forms that find shelter among the algae afford it abundant food. Though this is precisely where the mussels grow till the rocks are almost black with them, it is said that they are never at tacked by the drills. The increase of these mollusks when they colonize upon an oyster-bed is very rapid, and the damage serious; but it is very difficult to combat them, and perhaps impossible to get rid of them. Consult: Goode, Fishery Industries, see i., p. 696 (Washington, 1884); Ingersoll. Oyster Industry of the United States (Washington, 1882).

DRILL (from mandrill, baboon, probably a West Indian word: divided by popular etymology into man + drill). A West African baboon (Cynocephalus leucophaeus), similar to the man

drill (q.v.), but rather smaller, and distinguished by the absence of any bright color on the face. The general color of the fur is brown, having a greenish tinge in some lights, rather paler on the under parts and whitish on the tufted forehead. The female is rather smaller and paler than the male; the naked parts of the face are ivory black, and not ribbed. Almost nothing is known of this baboon in nature, but in captivity it behaves much as does its cousins. See BABOON, and Plate of BABOONS.

DRILL (abbreviation of drilling, Ger. Drillich, OHG. drilich, ticking, from Lat. triler, threethreaded, from tres, three + licium, thread; associated by popular etymology with Ger. drei, three termination -ing). A fine twilled linen fabric of a satiny finish.

DRILL REGULATIONS. Official works prescribing for the units of organization the method of training and instruction, their formations, manœuvres, and ceremonies, and in a limited sense their battle tactics. The forms in which the units of organization learn their duties and perform them, at rest and in motion, are embodied in the drill regulations prescribed by the various nations. They are, from their nature, next to organization, the foundation for the tactics of an army.

Drill regulations are undergoing constant change, due to improvements in firearms and the experiences of the most recent wars, as well as the improvements in other fields of science. Those for the various branches of the line-cavalry, infantry, artillery-are comparatively stable, although even these are changed almost every decade. Those for heavy artillery of all kinds must change with every alteration or improvement in the piece, its carriage, or the emplacement accessories. See ARMY ORGANIZATION; and TACTICS, MILITARY.

DRI MYS. See WINTER'S BARK.

DRINKER MOTH (so called from its long proboscis). An English foliage-destroying moth (Odonestis potatoria), closely allied to the egger. DRINKING USAGES. As religious observances, drink-offerings were common among the ancients, both Jews and pagans. To mark the spot where he communed with God, Jacob set up a pillar of stone and 'poured a drink-offering thereon' (Gen. xxxv. 14), and women are said to have poured out drink-offerings unto other gods (Jer. vii. 18). On occasions of solemn prayers and before their eating and drinking, the Greeks and Romans poured from the cup to the ground a small quantity of the liquid-either undiluted wine, milk diluted with water, or water flavored with honey. A relic of the custom was The recently noted in the island of Samos. health-drinking custom comes from antiquity. Homer's Odysseus, when about to leave the Phaacians, rises from the couch and places the drinking-bowl in the hands of Alcinous's wife with the words, "I drink to you; be happy." So, too, with the early Romans, the drinking of healths was a common custom, simply observed with a homely formula. Plato and Xenophon have described the famous symposia or drinking parties of the Greeks, which under the name commissatio came into vogue in Rome under the Empire. These followed the feast and were enlivened by games, riddles, and the music of the