he wrote his Freedom of the Will; his Nature of Virtue; and his Original Sin. Here he wrought a work for the Indians, the traces of which are discernible to this day. And here he continued his acquaintance with the first and principal in the line of his successors, and of the members of his 'school,' Samuel Hopkins. In 1758 he reluctantly accepted the presidency of Princeton College, but after a few weeks of service was removed by death, March 22, 1758. Edwards's great fame rests upon his work as a theologian in the defense and the development of the evangelical system. He was originally, and remained, a strong Calvinist. His earliest discussion, that on Justification, was marked by a certain conventionality of treatment, indicating the controlling influence of theological tradition. But there is even here the breathing of a new spirit, as when faith is defined in a way unknown in the previous century, and identified with repentance as constituting with that the indivisible act of conversion. The treatise upon the Freedom of the Will is an unwavering defense of determinism, and contends not only that this is the teaching of Scripture and reason, but that any other view is false, absurd, and inconceivable, even by those who propound it. The doctrine which he thus maintains is only the position of Locke, from whose earlier editions all the positions and all the arguments, including even the famous Reductio ad Absurdum of the infinite series, are all drawn. But the fineness, the dialectical skill, the detail with which every conceivable objection is brought forward and demolished, and the tremendousness of the general effect, are all Edwards's own. While too much praise has often been lavished upon the book as a contribution to the permanent advancement of the theme, too much cannot well be said of its perfection of form, or of the influence which it immediately obtained and has continued to hold. It is probably the most famous book in theology that America has yet produced, and one of the most famous philosophical works of the world. But there was much that was new in Edwards and which was destined to begin a distinct theological movement in America. In the treatise upon Original Sin suggestions looking to a new emphasis upon the voluntary character and personal nature of sin were made, which, in combination with suggestions in the Freedom of the Will upon the natural power of man, led ultimately to a new anthropology, in which the doctrines of original sin, imputation, ability, and regeneration were to undergo much modification. (See NEW ENGLAND THEOLOGY.) More directly influential was the treatise upon the Nature of Virtue. This propounded the doctrine that the essence of virtue is love, or the choice of the good of being according to its worth. Thus for the first time in America an intelligible answer was given to the question, What is holiness? and the moral attributes of God were viewed as comprised in love. The treatise was a posthumous one, but its leading ideas were at once adopted by Hopkins, became the underlying idea of the theory of the Atonement adopted by Edwards's son, and have become the characteristic principles of the school of thought called 'New England,' or often 'Edwardean,' from Edwards himself. Other suggestions are to be found scattered up and down the pages of Edwards, many of which have greatly influenced his followers.

But most of all, perhaps, should be noted his utter loyalty to truth and his fearlessness in investigation.

Edwards was preeminently a religious man. As a child he was profoundly impressed with the thought of God. He displayed modesty, humility, and serenity of spirit. Although engaging constantly in theological controversy, he is impersonal, calm, just, fair, and candid in his method of conducting the discussion. He was a student from his childhood, and extended his studies over pretty much the entire range of learning in his day. As a preacher he was one of the first of his age. His ability to hold the attention of his audiences to long and careful trains of thought till he had convinced and won them, would of itself illustrate this statement. But the well-known instances of his great power over congregations, as in the sermon at Enfield, where the people rose in their seats and wept and sobbed as he described the state of the lost, till he was obliged himself to ask them to be still, prove his ability to stir the feelings profoundly, and that he felt profoundly himself.

re

Editions of his works are the Worcester (1809), originally in eight volumes, now printed in four volumes; and (the best) the Dwight edition in ten volumes (New York, 1829Consult Allen, Jonathan 30), with memoir.

Edwards (Boston, 1889).

EDWARDS, JONATHAN (the younger) (17451801). An American theologian, born at Northampton, the second son of Jonathan Edwards the Elder. Early left an orphan, his education was provided for by friends, and he was graduated at Princeton in 1765. While in college he was converted, and after graduation studied theology with the friend of his father, Joseph Bellamy, of Bethlehem, Conn. He was tutor in Princeton, 1767-69; pastor in White Haven, Conn., 176995; in Colebrook, Conn., 1795-99; whence he went to the presidency of Union College, Schenectady. As a theologian his fame rests upon his reply to Chauncy upon the salvation of all men, in which he defended the usual evangelical doctrine; his reply to Samuel West's Essays on Liberty and Necessity, in which he largely modified his father's theory of the will by giving it a liberal interpretation scarcely reconcilable with its plain meaning; and by his sermons upon the Atonement. He took part, in the last work, in the Universalist controversy then raging in New England. The Universalists of the Murray school had argued upon the basis of the standard Calvinistic theory of the Atonement, that Christ had satisfied justice in behalf of all those for whom He died, and paid their debt before God. But He had died for all men; therefore all men are saved. Edwards rejected the conclusion as against the Bible. But he could not deny the minor premise; and he therefore was led to modify the major premise and teach that Christ did not satisfy justice for men so that their debt to God was paid, but was a penal example, rendering it, not obligatory upon God to forgive all men, but, consistent with all the interests involved (which, according to the new theory of virtue, he must maintain), to forgive repentant sinners. The main idea was borrowed from Grotius, but the ideal basis of the Atonement in the love of God was a new feature. Edwards thus founded the 'New England' or 'governmental' theory of the Atonement, which main

tained its place as the generally accepted theory among Congregationalists and 'New School' Presbyterians for well nigh a century. His works were published at Andover (1842), in two volumes, with a memoir by Tryon Edwards.

EDWARDS, MATILDA BETHAM. See BETHAMEDWARDS, MATILDA.

EDWARDS, PIERREPONT (1750-1826). An American lawyer, son of Jonathan Edwards, the theologian. He graduated at Princeton in 1768, was admitted to the bar, began practice at New Haven, Conn., in 1771, and served in the Revolutionary Army. In 1787-88 he was a member of the Continental Congress, and later became United States District Judge for Connecticut. He founded the Toleration Party in Connecticut, and his energy in this cause made him hated by

the colonists. After the treason of Benedict Ar

nold, he became administrator of that officer's

estate.

EDWARDS, WILLIAM (1770-1851). An American inventor, the grandson of Jonathan Edwards, the theologian. He was born in Elizabethtown, N. J. He introduced a valuable improvement in the manufacture of leather, whereby tanning was accomplished in a quarter of the usual time. This and other improvements and machines introduced by him, including a rolling-machine, greatly advanced the production of leather in America.

EDWARDSVILLE. A city and county-seat of Madison County, Ill., 17 miles northeast of Saint Louis, Mo., on the Wabash, the Illinois Terminal, the Toledo, Saint Louis and Kansas City, and other railroads (Map: Illinois, B 5). It is in an agricultural and coal-mining district, and has extensive manufactures of tools, plumbing supplies, brass finishings, singletrees, buggies, etc. The city has a small public library. Settled in 1812, Edwardsville was incorporated in 1819, and at present is governed under a charter of 1872, which provides for a mayor, elected every two years, and a city council. Population, in 1890, 3561; in 1901, 4157.

ED WIN, or EADWINE (c.585-633). A king of Northumbria. He was the son of Ella, King of Deira, and was only three years old on the death of his father, in 588. Deira was invaded by Ethelric, the King of Bernicia, and the infant Edwin was carried by his guardians into North Wales, where he was brought up. Later he lived as an exile under the protection of Cearl, King of Mercia, and Rædwald, the ruler of East Anglia. The latter in 617 raised an army, defeated and slew Ethelfrith, who had succeeded his father, Ethelric, and restored Edwin to his father's throne. Soon after his return to Deira, Edwin succeeded in reducing Bernicia, and established the Kingdom of Northumbria. He speedily extended his power over a large part of England, his authority stretching as far west as the islands of Anglesea and Man, and as far north as the town of Edinburgh, which he is believed to have fortified. and which still bears his name. Especially after 626, when he defeated the West Saxon King, Edwin was suzerain practically of all England save the Kingdom of Kent, with whose ruler he was in alliance, having married the King's sister, Ethelburh, in 625. Ethelburh was a Christian, and owing to her influence and the exhortations of the missionary priest Paulinus, Edwin with his entire witan was brought over to Chris

tianity in 627. He had previously been acknowi edged as Bretwalda, or leader of the English, and his power increased greatly after his conversion. In 633 Penda of Mercia, the most powerful prince in England after Edwin, and the champion of the old heathen religion, united with the Welsh against the Northumbrian King, and on October 12, 633, inflicted an overwhelming defeat upon him at Heathfield. Edwin himself was killed, Christianity for a time was extinguished in the Kingdom of Northumbria fell apart, and northern England. Consult Green, The Making of England (London and New York, 1881).

EDWIN AND ANʼGELI’NA. A poem by Oliver Goldsmith, printed privately for the amusement of the Countess of Northumberland late in 1765, and afterwards published in the Vicar of Wakefield. The author has been unjustly accused of stealing it from Percy's Friar of Orders Grey, and also of translating it bodily from the French.

EDWIN DROOD. See MYSTERY OF EDWIN DROOD.

ED/WY, or EADWIG (?-959). A king of the English. He was the eldest son of Eadmund I. and succeeded his uncle Eadred in 955. Dunstan (q.v.) bitterly opposed his marrying Elfgifu, "because they were too near akin," and was banished from the kingdom for his pains; but not long afterwards he was recalled by the Mer cians, who had revolted from Edwy and proclaimed his brother Eadgar King. Edwy was forced to share the kingdom with his brother. He died October 1, 959.

DEN

EECKHOUT, ak'hout, GERBRAND VAN (1621-74). A Dutch painter. He was born in Amsterdam and studied with Rembrandt, whose composition and coloring he imitated. In portrait-painting Eeckhout had a superior talent for expressing character. Among his best paintings on historical subjects are: "The Adoration of the Magi" (Museum of the Hague), and "The Raising of Jairus's Daughter" (Berlin Museum).

EECLOO, â-klō'. A town of Belgium, in the Province of East Flanders, 11 miles northwest of Ghent (Map: Belgium, B 3). It has manufactures of lace, cotton, and woolen fabrics. Population, in 1900, 13,034.

EEDEN, â'den, FREDERIK VAN (1860-). A Dutch author. He was born in Haarlem, studied at the University of Amsterdam, and became a practicing physician at Bussun. His De kleine Johannes (1887; German translation 1892). a story of animal life, attracted great attention. Others of his works are the important poems. Johannes Viator (1892) and Enkele Verzen (1898). Several of his dramas have also been successfully presented.

EEKHOUD, ak'hout, GEORGES (1854-). A Belgian novelist and poet, born in Antwerp. His early poems, Myrtes et cyprès (1876), Zigzags poétiques (1877), and Les pittoresques (1879), were romantic. His short stories (Kermesses, 1884) showed a trend to realism, accentuated in his first novel, Les milices de SaintFrançois (1886), where the naïve mysticism of Flemish peasant life is finely suggested. La nou velle Carthage (1888), his masterpiece, is a realistic picture of life in Antwerp. Noteworthy also are Les fusillés de Malines (1890), a story of the peasant revolt against the French in 1798, and La faneuse d'amour (1900).

EEL (AS. al, Ger. Aal). An elongated, serpent-shaped fish of the order Apodes (q.v.); soft-rayed, without ventral fins, and having the long dorsal fin confluent with the anal around the tip of the tail. The skin is smooth and exceedingly slimy and slippery. It may contain small scales, or scales may be entirely wanting. The vertebræ, because of the elongated form of the body, are very numerous. The best-known eels are the fresh-water eel (Anguilla anguilla), belonging to the family Anguillidæ, and the scaleless conger eel (Leptocephalus conger), of the family Leptocephalidae. The common fresh-water eels, which have minute scales imbedded in the skin, occur on both sides of the Atlantic and ascend rivers and live there for the most part, returning to the sea in the autumn, or they may bury themselves in the mud during the winter. Sometimes they are dug out of the mud of river banks where large numbers of them may be found congregated together. Their activities and migrations seem to take place mostly during the night. They frequently make excursions on land in the moist grass for considerable distances, the purpose of which is not well understood.

The reproduction of the eel has excited the attention of naturalists since the days of Aristotle. In 1763 an eel-like fish, taken off the English coast by William Morris, was named Leptocephalus. Numerous specimens have since been obtained all over the world and the family Leptocephalidae has been erected to contain the various species which have been described. It has been suggested that the Leptocephalidæ are larvæ of eels, and this has been shown by Delage and by Grassi and Calandruccio, as a result of breeding experiments, to be the case, for as they developed they revealed all the characters of conger eels. Eventually Grassi showed that one of these Leptocephali (Leptocephalus brevirostris), characterized by its small size, short body, and absence of pigment, is the young or larval stage of the common eel. The discovery of Grassi (1893) was facilitated by the peculiar whirlpool currents in the Straits of Messina which occasionally bring bottom organisms to the surface, and since the young eels are found at the surface with well-known denizens of the deep sea, it is concluded that the young develop at great depths (1500 feet). From the depths are brought also adult male and female eels with ripe eggs and sperm. The entire reproductive history of the eel may now be given as follows: Eels that

descend from the fresh water to the sea do so during the months October to January, and in a sexually immature condition, as has long been known. They go to the depths and live there for eight months or more, during which time they become sexually mature. The eggs are fertilized in August and the following months, and being heavy they tend to keep to the bottom, where, on account of the low temperature, they develop slowly. Larvæ from these eggs are found in spring and summer. In the autumn and winter, October to February, these young eels pass from the sea into fresh water in great numbers-immigrations which have long been known as 'eelfares'; the fish themselves, now over a year old, are called 'elvers.' Two years then intervene between the descent of the parent eels and the ascent of their progeny. The old fish seem to return to the fresh water irregularly at various months of the year.

VOL. VI.-33.

Eels are very voracious and will eat the most varied sort of food. They grow to a length of four to five feet. Although much prejudice against them exists in certain regions, they are important food-fishes, and are much eaten both in Europe and America. By many they are thought to be poisonous, a notion which may have its origin in the well-known fact that eel's blood transfused into the system of higher vertebrates is very poisonous; but the same is true of the blood of other animals, though, perhaps to a smaller degree. Anguilla, of which there are several species, is found in all warm seas except the East Pacific. Eels are trapped by eel-pots and baskets and are extensively speared. See CONGER EEL; ELECTRIC FISHES; and Plate of EELS, CONGERS, and MORAYS.

EE LEE. See ILI.

EEL-GRASS. See TAPE-GRASS.

EELLS, MYRON (1843-). An American Congregational clergyman, born at Walker's Prairie, Wash. He graduated at Pacific University, Ore., in 1866, and at Hartford Theological Seminary in 1871. After holding a pastorate at Boise City, Idaho, for two years (1872-74) he became a missionary among the Indians at Skohomish, Wash., and later pastor of the Congregational Church (1876). In 1893 he was appointed superintendent of the ethnological exhibit of Washington at the World's Columbian Exposition. His publications include: History of Congregational Association of Washington and Oregon (1881); History of Indian Missions on the Pacific Coast (1882); Ten Years at Skohomish (1886); Father Eells (1894); and monographs on the Twana, ChemaIndians of Puget Sound, and on hymns in the kum, and Clallum Indians of Washington, on the Chinook language. He prepared for the Smithsonian Institution vocabularies of the languages of many of the northern tribes of Indians.

EELPOUT (AS. alepute, from al, eel + pūle, pout). (1) In England, and locality in the Northern United States, the burbot (q.v.). The mutton-fish (q.v.). (3) A catfish (Malapterurus). See CATFISH.

(2)

EELWORM. Any of the threadlike nematode worms of the family Anguillulidæ, as the vinegar-eel (q.v.). Certain species in the East Indies cause a serious disease of sugar-cane called 'sereh,' and American species are injurious to cotton, the orange, peach, and other plants, by producing galls and 'root-knot.' Consult Neal, United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 20 (Washington, 1889).

EFFECT (OF. effect, Lat. effectus, from efficere, to accomplish, from ex, out facere, to do). The impression which the mind receives at the sight of a work of art without taking cognizance of the details that contribute to it. In sculpture it is the movement and general shape of the mass, which first impresses and produces the effect. In painting, effect is produced by the force of color, the balance of light and shade, and by composition. Bold sketches of their works are sometimes made by artists beforehand, for the purpose of adjusting the composition and coloring so as to produce the desired effect.

EFFEN'DI (Turk. efendi, gentleman.) A term of respect among the Turks, corresponding to our Mr. or Sir, or the French monsieur. The title is frequently added to the name of an office,