CHAPTER III.-FIGURES. A figure, in grammar, is an intentional devia tion from the ordinary spelling, formation, construction, or application of words. There are, accordingly, figures of Orthography, figures of Etymology, figures of Syntax, and figures of Rhetoric. When figures are judiciously employed, they both strengthen and adorn expression. They occur more frequently in poetry than in prose; and several of them are merely poetic licenses. SECTION 1.-FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. A figure of Orthography is an intentional deviation from the ordinary or true spelling of a word. The principal figures of Orthography are two; namely, Mi-me-sis and Archa-ism. 1. Mimesis is a ludicrous imitation of some mistake or mispronunciation of a word, in which the error is mimicked by a false spelling, or the taking of one word for an other; as, "Maister, says he, have you any wery good weal in your vâllet?"-Columbian Orator, p. 292. Ay, he was porn at Monmouth, Captain Gower." -Shak. "I will description the matter to you, if you be capacity of it."-Id. 66 "Perdigious! I can hardly stand."-Lloyd. 2. An Archaism is a word or phrase expressed according to ancient usage, and not according to our modern orthography; as, "Newe grene chese of smalle clammynes comfortethe a hotte stomake." -T. PAYNEL: Tooke's Diversions, ii, 182. "With him was rev'rend Contemplation pight, Bow-bent with eld, his beard of snowy hue."--Beattie. SECTION II.-FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. A figure of Etymology is an intentional devia tion from the ordinary formation of a word. The principal figures of Etymology are eight; namely, A-phær e-sis, Pros-the-sis, Syn'-co-pe, A-poc-o-pe, Par-a-go'ge, Di-ær-e-sis, Syn-ar-e-sis, and Tme-sis, 1. Apheresis is the elision of some of the initial letters of a word; as, 'gainst, 'gan, 'neath,-for against, began, beneath. 2. Prosthesis is the prefixing of an expletive syllable to a word; as, adown, appaid, bestrown, evanished,-for down, paid, strown, vanished. 3. Syncope is the elision of some of the middle letters of a word; as, medicine, for medicine; e'en, for even; o'er, for over. 4. Apocope is the elision of some of the final letters of a word; as, tho', for though; th', for the; t'other, for the other. 5. Paragoge is the annexing of an expletive syllable to a word; as, withouten, for without; my deary, for my dear. 6. Diaresis is the separating of two vowels that might form a diphthong; as, coöperate, not cooperate; orthoëpy, not orthopy. 7. Synæresis is the sinking of two syllables into one; as, seest, for seest; tacked, for tack-ed. Obs. When a vowel is entirely suppressed in pronunciation, (whether retained in writing or not,) the consonants connected with it, fall into an other syllable: thus, loved or lov'd, lovest or lov'st, are monosyllables, except in solemn discourse, in which the e is made vocal. 8. Tmesis is the inserting of a word between the parts of a compound; as, "On which side soever;"-" To us ward;"—" To God ward."-Bible. SECTION III.-FIGURES OF SYNTAX. A figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation from the ordinary construction of words. The principal figures of Syntax are five; namely, El-lip'-sio, Ple'o-nasm, Syl-lep-sis, En-al-la-ge, and Hy-per-ba-ton. 666 1. Ellipsis is the omission of some words which are necessary to complete the construction, but not necessary to convey the meaning; as, Who did this?' 'I' [did it.]" Such words are said to be understood; because they are received as belonging to the sentence, though they are not uttered. 2. Pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous words. This figure is allowable only, when in animated discourse, it abruptly introduces an emphatic word, or repeats an idea to impress it more strongly; as, He that hath ears to hear, let him hear!"-"I know thee who thou art." A pleonasın is sometimes impressive and elegant; but an unemphatic repetition of the same idea, is one of the worst faults of bad writing. 3. Syllepsis is agreement formed according to the figurative sense of a word, or the mental conception of the thing spoken of, and not according to the literal or common use of the term; it is therefore, in general, connected with some figure of rhetoric: as, "The Word was made flesh, and dwelt ainong us, and we beheld his glory."John, i, 14. "Then Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and preached Christ unto them.”—Acts, viii, 5. “While Evening draws her crimson curtain round." 4. Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or of one modifica tion for an other. This figure borders closely upon solecisin.* It is a license sparingly indulged in poetry, and fashion has given it at least one form in prose; as, "You know that you are Brutus that speak this."-Shak. "They fall successive. [ly,] and successive [ly] rise."-Pope. "Than whom [who] none higher sat."-Milton. "So furious was that onset's shock, Destruction's gates at once unlock.”—Hogg. 5. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words; as, "He wanders carth around,"—" Rings the world with the vain stir." This figure is much employed in poetry. A judicious use of it confers harmony, variety, strength, and vivacity, upon composition. But care should be taken lest it produce ambiguity or obscurity. SECTION IV.-FIGURES OF RHETORIC. A figure of Rhetoric is an intentional deviation from the ordinary application of words. Numerous departures from perfect simplicity of diction occur in almost every kind of composition. They are mostly founded on some similitude or relation of things, which, by the power of imagination, is rendered conducive to ornament or illustration. The principal figures of Rhetoric are fourteen; namely, Sim'-i-le, Met'-a-phor, Al-le-go-ry, Me-ton'y-my, Syn-ec'-do-che, Hy-per-bo-le, Vis-ion, A-pos-tro-phe, Per-son'-i-fi-ca-tion, Er-o-te'sis, Ec-pho-ne sis, An-tith-e-sis, Cli'-max, and I'-ro-ny. 1. A Simile is a simple and express comparison; and is generally introduced by like, as, or so; as, "At first, like thunder's distant tone, The rattling din came rolling on."-Hogy. 2. A Metaphor is a figure that expresses the resemblance of two objects, by applying either the name, or some attribute, adjunct, or action, of the one, directly to the other; as, "His eye was morning's brightest ray."-Hogg. 3. An Allegory is a continued narration of fictitious events designed to represent and illustrate important realities. Thus the Psalmist represents the Jewish nation under the symbol of a vine: "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst * Deviations of this kind are, in general, to be considered solecisms; otherwise the rules of grammar would be of no use or authority. Despuuter, an ancient Latin grammarian, gave an improper latitude to this figure, under the name of Antiptosis; and Behourt and others extended it still further. But Sunctius says, " Antiptosi grammaticorum nihil imperitius, quod figmentum si esset verum, frustra quæreretur, quem casum verba regerent." And the Messieurs De Port Royal reject the figure altogether. There are, however, some changes of this kind, which the grammarian is not competent to condemn, though they do not accord with the ordinary principles of Bonstruction. cause it to take deep root; and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars.”—Psalms, lxxx, 8. 4. A Metonymy is a change of names. It is founded on some such relation as that of cause and effect, of subject and adjunct, of place and inhabitant, of container and thing contained, or of sign and thing signified: as, "God is our salvation;" i. e., Saviour.— "He was the sigh of her secret soul;" i. e., the youth she loved.— "They smote the city;" i. e., citizens.-"My son, give me thy heart;" i. e., affection.-"The sceptre shall not depart from Judah;" i. e., kingly power. 5. Synecdoche is the naming of a whole for a part, or of a part for the whole; as, “This roof (i. e., house] protects you."—"Now the year [i. e., summer] is beautiful."-Thomson. 6. Hyperbole is extravagant exaggeration, in which the imagination is indulged beyond the sobriety of truth; as, "The sky shrunk upward with unusual dread, And trembling Tiber div'd beneath his bed.”—Dryden. 7. Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which the speaker represents the objects of his imagination, as actually before his eyes, and present to his senses; as, "Andromache-thy griefs I dread; I see thee trembling, weeping, captive led."-Pope. 8. Apostrophe is a turning from the regular course of the subject, into an animated address; as, "Death is swallowed up in victory. O Death! where is thy sting? O Grave! where is thy victory?" -1 Cor., xv, 54. 9. Personification is a figure by which, in imagination, we ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings or abstract qualities; as, 66 'Lo, steel-clad War his gorgeous standard rears!"-Rogers. "Hark! Truth proclaims, thy triumphs cease!"—Id. 10. Erotesis is a figure in which the speaker adopts the form of interrogation, not to express a doubt, but in general confidently to assert the reverse of what is asked; as, "Hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou thunder with a voice like him ?"-Job, xl, 9. 11. Ecphonesis is a pathetic exclamation, denoting some violent emotion of the mind; as, "O Liberty! O sound once delightful to every Roman ear! O sacred privilege of Roman citizenship!-once sacred-now trampled upon!"-Cicero. 12. Antithesis is a placing of things in opposition to heighten their effect by contrast; as, "Contrasted faults through all their manners reign; And, e'en in penance, planning sins anew."-Goldsmith. 13. Climax is a figure in which the sense is made to advance by successive steps, to rise gradually to what is more and more important and interesting, or to descend to what is more and more minute and particular; as, "Tribulation worketh patience; and patience, experience; and experience, hope."-Rom., v, 3. 14. Irony is a figure in which the speaker sneeringly utters the direct reverse of what he intends shall be understood; as, "We have, to be sure, great reason to believe the modest man would not ask him for a debt, when he pursues his life."— Cicero. CHAPTER IV.-VERSIFICATION. Versification is the art of arranging words into lines of correspondent length, so as to produce harmony by the regular alternation of syllables differing in quantity. SECTION I.--OF QUANTITY. The Quantity of a syllable, is the relative portion of time occupied in uttering it. In poetry, every syllable is considered to be either long or short. A long syllable is reckoned to be equal to two short ones. Obs. 1.-The quantity of a syllable does not depend on the sound of the vowel or diphthong, but principally, on the degree of accentual force with which the syllable is uttered, whereby a greater or less portion of time is employed. The open vowel sounds are those which are the most easily protracted, yet they often occur in the shortest and feeblest syllables. Obs. 2.-Most monosyllables are variable, and may be made either long or short, as suits the rhythm. In words of greater length, the accented syllable is always long; and a syllable immediately before or after that which is accented, is always short. SECTION II.-OF RHYME. Rhyme is a similarity of sound, between the last syllables of different lines. Blank verse is verse without rhyme. Obs. The principal rhyming syllables are always long. Double rhyme adds one short syllable; triple rhyme, two. Such syllables are redundant in iambic and anapestic verses. SECTION III.-OF POETIC FEET. A line of poetry consists of successive combinations of syllables, called feet. A poetic foot, in English, consists either of two or of three syllables. The principal English feet are the Iambus, the Trochee, the Anapest, and the Dactyl. |