KEY TO EXERCISE 42, LESSON XXIV. (Vol. II., page 7). 18. 116869. 19. 80797440. 20. 9 cwt. 0 qrs. 8 lbs. 21. 119 tons 6 cwt. 3 lbs. 22. 19 cwt. 2 qrs. 23. 9120. 26. 88 lbs. 4 oz 7 drms. 2 sops. 27. 47520 yds. 142500 ft. 1710720 in. 28. 712800 ft. 8553600 inches. 29. 960000 perches, 31. 29 m. 4 fur. 172 33. 17 m. 0 fur. 20 yards. 37. 6396 yds. 2 qrs. 41. 38. 9302 French ells, 2 pks. 1 gal. min. 40 sec. 65. 32640858360 sq. inches. 66. 582 acr. 1 rood 3 p. 29 yds. 8 ft. 67. 259200 cub. in. 68. 4551552 cub. in. 69. 2325888 cub. in. 70. 49 cubic ft. 1 in. 71. 1452 cub.yds.12ft. 72. 4492800 cub. in. 73. 52 tons 40 cub. ft. 180 cubic inches. 74. 576 lbs. avoirds. 75. 691 lbs. 10 avoirdupois. oz. 76. 822 lbs. 134 oz. av. 77. 1234 lbs. 4 oz.av. 78. 58 lbs. 4 oz. troy. 79. 122 lbs. 31 oz. 80. 2 lbs. 8 oz. av. 82. 360 square feet. 10 rods. climb; bravado, a boast, from the Spanish bravata, or the French bravade, a boastful threat. "What can be more strange than that we should, within two months, have won one town of importance by scalade, battered another, and overthrown great forces in the field ?"-Bacon. Age, from the Latin termination ago, as in imago (an image), through the Spanish azgo, and the French age (as in avantage, an advantage): it denotes a state of being. "That to the utmost of our ability, we ought to repair any damage we have done to others is self-evident."-Beattie, "Moral Science." The term average is from the low Latin averagium (from the Latin verb habeo, I have), which denoted a duty or service paid primarily in labour by the tenant to the lord, by means of his becoming in a secondary sense a sort of tax on movable probeasts, and carriages, and implements of husbandry, and thus perty. From average, and the custom it denotes, come avercorne and averpenny in old legal documents. "Whether the small town of Birmingham alone doth not upon an average circulate every week, one way or other, to the value of £50,000." -Berkeley, "Querist.” Al, from the Latin al, as in animal, an animal, and animalis, 83. 16 acres 0 roods belonging to an animal. Al in Latin indicates personality; thus, anima is life, and animal one who possesses life. Al, from alis, signifies belonging to. 84. 108 sq. yds. 8 sq. 85. 446 acres 1 rood. 87. 36 square yards. bushels. 93. 7198 imp. 94. 771 imp. bus. 97. 27993600 cub. in. 99. 10 pieces. Able, from the Gothic abal, strength, found in the Latin habilis, fit for, and in the Latin termination bilis; as, amabilis, lovable. It is found also in our word ability. In the sense of power or capacity, it occurs in many English words; as, reasonable, durable, etc. Sometimes it passes into the form ible; as comprehensible, visible, etc. When preceded by v, the a or blends with the v into u, as in soluble. "Where all life dies, death lives, and nature breeds, i Ade (ado), coming into the English through the French, the Italian, and the Spanish, gives us such words as brocade, embroidered silk; comrade, from the French camarade, or the Italian camerata, through the Latin camera, a chamber; scalade, from the Latin scala, a ladder, or from the Spanish escalar, to "Mr. Monkhouse happening one day to pull a flower from a tree which grew in one of their sepulohral inclosures, an Indian, whose jealousy had probably been upon the watch, came suddenly behind him and struck him."-Cook, "First Voyage." An, a suffix from the Latin adjective form anus: as humanus, human, pertaining to a man; from humanus comes also humankind, like a man, in which you see an in another form. From the termination of these Latin adjectives in the neuter plural ana is derived, the once favourite ana; as in Johnsoniana, the things of Johnson, that is, his lighter sayings and doings, what is sometimes called table-talk, from the German tisch-reden. Ance or ancy, a substantive suffix from the Latin antia, as in constantia, constancy; it denotes a condition; in constancy, the condition of being constant or firm. Ance sometimes passes into ence, as in condolence, the state of grieving (Latin, doleo, I grieve) with (con) another. "Logicians distinguish two kinds of operations of the mind; the first kind produces no effect without the mind; the last does. The first they call immanent acts, the second transitive." Ar from the Latin substantive ending in ar, as calcar, a spur; and the Latin adjective ending in aris, as regulāris (Latin, regula, a rule), according to rule, regular. The ar having once become a recognised termination in English, was added to words of Latin origin, as similar (similis, like, from the Latin simia, an ape; the likeness of the ape to man being such as to cause the same word to be applied to both ape and likeness; so we use to ape, that is, to imitate). "You have heard how first they began of laymen onely, leading a straiter life from the society of other persons, who, then following the rule of S. Bennet (Benedict), were called regulars and votaries."—Foz. been spoken of under the prefixes. Archy, a Greek termination, signifying chief, government, has Ard (connected with the German art, kind, manner), a substantive termination, signifies a permanent state; as, sluggard, one who is in the habit of being sluggish; drunkard, one whose habitual state is intoxication: a good man may be once drunk, but a good man cannot be a drunkard. The dull, in dullard, is allied to the Dutch dol, mad, or dolen, to wander or rave, or to the German toll, mad. "But would I bee a poet if I might, To rub my browes three days and wake three nights, Bishop Hall. Ary, from Latin adjective termination arius, as found in auxiliarius, (Latin, auxilium, aid), auxiliary, tributary. This same orius gave rise to our termination in arious, as in gregarious (Latin, grex, a flock), flocking together. From Latin words ending in arius, we have statuary (ars statuaria); lapidary (Latin, lapis, a stone), a (precious) stone-cutter; aviary, a place for keeping birds (Latin, avis, a bird). Aster, as in poetaster, which comes immediately from the French poétastre, a bad poet, is found in the Italian astro, a termination denoting contempt. The aster in disaster, a calamity, has nothing to do with the suffix. Disaster seems to be from dis and the Greek aσтpov (as'-tron), or Latin astrum, a star, and so signifies an ill-starred condition. Ate is a verbal (derived from a verb) termination, the origin of which is found in the Latin passive participle, as congregatus; hence the verb to congregate. "The infuriate hill shoots forth the pillared flame." Thomson, "Summer.” shove; stopple, from to stop; needle, from the Dutch naad, a seam; in Anglo-Saxon, nædel; German, nadel, doubtless allied to the Anglo-Saxon nagel, the German nagel, and the English nail. Damsel, a young woman, is an abridged form of the French demoiselle, which of old denoted a daughter of noble parents: the transition of demoiselle into damsel may be seen in the rendering of the word by English versions of different ages; as Wicliff (1380), a damysel; Tyndale (1534), a damsell; Cranmer (1539), a damsell; the Authorised (1611), a damosell. The Greek word, which properly denotes a female servant, is translated by the Geneva version (1557), a mayde (maid); and by the Rheims version (1582), one vvenche (wench). (Matt. xxvi. 69.) En, a suffix, by which nouns are converted into adjectives, and adjectives into verbs; as brass, brazen; white, to whiten. In the same way, we have long, length, lengthen; dark, darken; soft, soften; leather, leathern; south, southern, and southron. En forms also one ending of passive participles; as weave, wove, woven; shear, shorn. It is found in some nouns as their plural termination; as ox, oxen. Of old, en and n formed the plural of the present tense of verbs, representing the Anglo-Saxon don. I quote the words of Ben Jonson: Ated, ted, or ed, are the terminations of the passive participle in English, equivalent to the same Latin participle ending in atus; thus the Latin communicatus is in English communicated. In the same way we have adapted, devolved, affixed, imputed, etc. Participles in ed become adjectives by suppressing the d, Eighth, they were wont to be formed by adding on, thus: Loven, as desolated becomes desolate. Ce is an English representative of the Latin termination in tia, as gratia, favour, grace. Cy is sometimes used instead of ce: for example, clementia, clemency; that is, mercy. In the older forms of the language words ending in cy were spelt cie. These nouns denote the abstract quality; thus prudens means prudent, as a prudent man; but prudentia means prudence, in the abstract; that is, the quality is considered apart from any subject. "But even that mightye loue (love) of his great clemencle, Hath given me grace at last to judge the truth from heresie.” Gascoigne. Ch, a Saxon termination found in church, ditch, which, etc., and of old pronounced as a guttural, or at least like k, as in the Scotch whilk, or quhilk, and the German ch or ich, as ich (ick), I; doch, yet; thus we have the Latin sic, and the English such; the Scotch mickle, and the English much; the Scotch kirk, German kirche, and the English church. Ditch or dike is a thing that men produce by digging. The words run thus, dig, dike, ditch. Another form of dike and ditch is digue. "The people ran into so great despair that in Zeland they gave over working at their digues, suffering the sea to gain every tide upon the country."-Sir W. Temple. Cle or le, a diminutive, formed after the manner of the Latin diminutive termination culus, masculine, and cula, feminine: for example, homunculus, a little man; a manikin; regulus (Latin, rex, a king), a little king; matercula, a little mother. The ending dle appears in particle, a little part; pellicle (Latin, pellis, skin), a little skin; in muscle (musculus a little mouse), so called in reference to its appearance under the skin. Dom, a suffix, found as a noun in the Latin and the Saxon, as well as the English; as in domus, a house; dominus, master; halidom, holiness; kingdom, the jurisdiction of a king. Dom is found also in the German thum; as reichthum, riches. Dom denotes power, authority, office. It is the same word that we have in doom; as doom's-day, the day of judgment. It occurs in the Saxon dom-boc, doom-book. "For neither the Fadir jugith ony man, but hath gouun (given) eche dome to the sone."-Wicliff's "Testament," John v. 22, "And looke, when I am king, clayme thou of me the earldome of Hereford."-Shakespeare, "Richard III." Ee, a termination of Gallic origin, found in refugee, debauchee, originated in an effort to represent in English the vocal force of the French accented e; as, debauché, refugié. The French word is the passive participle. Hence, frequently the words ending in ee have a passive sense: a trustee is one who is trusted by a trustor or truster; that is, one who trusts. It is the same with feoffer and feoffee. "And though his majesty came to them by descent, yet it was but in nature of the heire of a feoffe in trust, for the use and service of the kingdom."-Prynne. "The persons plurall keepe the termination of the first person singular. In former times, till about the reigne of King Henry the sagen, complainen."—" Grammar." in ens; as poenitens, pœnitentia, penitence; existens, existentia, Ence, a suffix, formed from the active participle in Latin ending existence. End, a Saxon termination which denotes an agent; as wegferend, a wayfarer; friend, in Saxon freond; German, freund; probably connected with the verb to free; that is, to make free; and to free may have its source in the more general import of the term-namely, to love, to woo; so that a friend is one who loves, and therefore frees another. Friend and friendly, in the older forms of the language, signified lover and loving. "The true faith, whereever it is, worketh and frameth the heart to friendlike dispositions unto God, and brings forth friendlike carriage in the life towards God."-Goodwin. Ent (sometimes ant, as in "church militant"), an adjective termination, the origin of which is found in both the Saxon and the Latin; as, writend, writing; absens (absentis), absent. Adjectives ending in ent denote a present condition-e.g., different; or a quality considered concretely; that is, in relation to some subject. "Lord God, how frequente and famyliar a thynge with euery (every) estate and degree throughout Christendom, is this reverent othe (oath) on the Gospills of Christ."-Sir T. Elyot. Er (in the forms er, r, re). By comparing the Anglo-Saxon writere, the Latin scriptor (scribo, I write), and the English writer, we find that the termination er, or, denotes an agent. So in Saxon sædere, a sower; plegere, a player; and in Latin, amator, a lover; doctor, a teacher. The endings ere in Saxon, or in Latin, and er in English, are very common. You must, however, in following analogy, use words so formed with judgment and taste. Having an active signification, they are generally formed from verbs, thus: to mend, a mender; to think, a thinker; to build, a builder. But it is not from every verb that such nouns can be properly formed. We can say, to better, but not a betterer; yet a bettering has some authority. Proper names arise from these nouns-e.g., Mr. Barker, Mr. Tyler, Mr. Hellier, Mr. Fisher. The suffix er also forms the comparative in adjectives; as, green, greener. It is, too, found in some verbs of Gallic origin; as in encounter (encontre, a meeting); cover (couvrir, to cover). LESSONS IN DRAWING.—XV. WE now propose to direct the attention of our pupils to the principles of light and shade in trees, or what is artistically termed "massing in the foliage," and introduce some illus. trations. Figs. 104 and 105 represent the same subject. The arrangement and outline of the trunk, branches, and foliage must be first made, as in Fig. 104, and we beg the pupil especially to remember that this must be his mode of pro * Friendlike, abbreviated into friendly; in German it is freundlich. El, le, a suffix, denoting an instrument; as, shovel, from to Compare what is said before on the termination ch. cedure in all cases. We have frequently noticed beginners, in their first attempts to draw trees, start off with that which they call "the shading," regardless of the fact that trees have trunks and stems upon which the foliage depends, and equally so as to the importance of the lights, which vary as much as the trees themselves; these lights must be so managed that all the half tints and darker parts must be made subservient to them. A proper acquaintance with the growth of the stems will assist us in understanding the disposition of the lights, as by them we must give the individual character of the tree: in other words-the lights, as they fall upon the foliage, are in their extent governed by that upon which the foliage depends, that is, the stems. We shall return to this again; in the meantime we will place before the pupil an example which practically has more to do with detail, than with the broader manner we shall enter upon in the next lesson. Our object in this arrangement is with a view of showing him the necessity of making himself capable, by this additional example, of entering into details, previous to the practice of the general distribution of light and shade, which, it will be our endeavour to show, must after wards receive those characteristic details which belong to trees in particular. Fig. 107 is the finished drawing of a fir-tree, whilst Fig. 106 represents the method we recommend in copying it. The sharp angular manner of execution will be noticed in contradistinction to the horizontal and broader method of the oak, or the drooping and almost perpendicular style of the willow. These should be copied on a larger scale, as a broader and more effective drawing will be obtained thereby than if it be done on too diminutive a scale; and, besides, the details will be better understood, and there will be also greater opportunity for entering fully into all minor particulars, which, if carefully observed, without descending to littleness of manner, will have so much influence upon the whole. As there is in many respects a close affinity between foregrounds and trees, it might be advisable at this stage to enter somewhat upon the treatment of foregrounds, preparatory to the remaining instructions we propose to give upon trees. Shrubberies, scattered bushes overgrown with brambles and honeysuckle, very properly belong to foregrounds; their mixed character, being neither trees nor plants, claim most of the remarks we shall have to make upon both. For studies for foregrounds, nature will be our greatest help and resource, affording at all times an endless variety of subjects, which can be more conveniently obtained than the larger specimens of vegetation. It is an excellent practice, and one that is very common amongst artists, to collect specimens of wild plants and preserve them in water; or, what is better when practicable, take them up bodily with the roots and plant them in pots. From these, separate and careful studies may be made, which will prove to be an excellent preparation for more extensive practice when drawing them collectively in their natural state, as seen on the common, under the hedges, or in shady lanes. We cannot here refrain from expressing regret that we are limited in these lessons to form only, since so much is gained by colour in the general effect of ground plants. If we reflect for a moment upon the infinite variety of growth they exhibit upon the flowers whose brilliant colours, blue, red-and yellow, and sparkling whitecrop up from amongst greens of every hue, we must confess that we should be very glad, were it possible, if we could take up the palette as well as the pencil, and by introducing our pupils to these additional charms, give them another sensation besides that which is produced by form only; but, even if this were practicable, we must withstand the temptation to turn aside from the path we are pursuing, which leads to a point where form and colour meet and help to perfect each other by their union; for if we must maintain that form without colour is less satisfactory, it is, nevertheless, expressive; but colour without form, however beautiful the arrangement may be, conveys no meaning, and presents nothing whereby to characterise it. In the practice of drawing foreground herbage, a writer on art observes "that the edges of the several more advancing leaves must be made sharp and decisive against the ground, whilst those that retire may have less opposition; this will assist their perspective," and they will acquire a more receding character by slightly toning down or blendingthe remoter parts with the ground or ob jects behind them: this rule may be applied to all objects, regardless of their size or form. The strength of the shadows must be allowed to be an important consideration. Our pupils will remember the observation, that near the highest lights are the darkest shadows; so, for example, should the light fall strongly upon the leaves of a plant, the shadows beneath them will bear the same proportion of depth, and those leaves which receive less light will have less strength in their shadows. Whilst we recommend our pupils to make close copies of plants separately, in order to obtain a knowledge of their construction and character, we are not advising them to make botanical studies, but art studies; this procedure will be all that is necessary to obtain a practical acquaintance with their forms, and will enable our students to represent them with greater skill and freedom, which is of such great importance when grouping plants in a landscape. The work then will be in the end pleasing and satisfactory, because it is truthful; otherwise, when less attention is paid to particular details, and a slovenly manner is employed, it is sure to terminate in confusion and failure. Mr. Burnet, in his work on Landscape Painting, says, "To begin with the foreground, as being that part of the landscape nearest the eye, it is necessary, therefore, of that it should receive all those qualities conducive to its situationsuch as detail, breadth, and largeness parts." In contrast to this, the same writer says, "In the early stages of the art, the minutime of individual plants and flowers were carried to the highest pitch of absurdity; not only is the whole ground of these pictures inlaid with endless specimens of botanic scrupulosity, but the intervening spaces are filled with reptiles and insects, as if the lives of the artists had been of antedilu vian length." LESSONS IN FRENCH.-XXVIII. SECTION L.-THE PAST DEFINITE [§ 120]. 1. THE past definite may be called the narrative or historical tense of the French. It is used to express an action entirely past, definite and complete in itself. The time must be specified, and every portion of it must be elapsed. Some time at least should have occurred since the action took place. Mon frère partit hier pour Paris, My brother left yesterday for Paris. 2. The student will bear in mind that the past indefinite [Sect. XL.] may be used for the past definite. The past definite, however, may never be used for the indefinite. In conversation the indefinite is often preferred to the definite, as the latter would at times appear too formal [§ 121 (3)]. 3. The past definite may generally be rendered in English by the simple form of the imperfect, or by the same tense conjugated with did. The past definite can never be rendered in English by the participle present of the verb preceded by was. J'allai à l'église hier matin, I went or did go to church yesterday morning. 4. TERMINATIONS OF THE PAST DEFINITE OF THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. [See Sect. XXII., and § 60.] soldat? 24. Je ne lui ai rien donné. 25. Pendant son séjour à B., nous lui donnâmes tout ce qu'il voulut. not find them. EXERCISE 96. 19. Has the 1. What did you receive last week? 2. We received fifty francs from your friend, and twenty-five from your brother. 3. Did you take your son to church with you yesterday? 4. I did not take him there (y). 5. What did you lose last year? 6. We lost our money, our clothes, and our horses. 7. Have you looked (cherchés) for them? 8. I looked for them, but did 10. They spoke of him and of you. 11. What did the physician 9. Did they speak of your brother yesterday? your sister rise yesterday? 14. She rose at five o'clock. 15. give you ? 12. He gave me nothing. 13. At what hour did Did you rise early this morning? 16. We rose at half-past six. not sold it, he has given it to his eldest sister. 17. Has your cousin sold all his property? 18. He has traveller related his adventures to you? 20. He related them 21. Did that man try (cherché) to speak to your father? 22. He tried to speak to him. 23. Did the professor speak of your brother during his stay at your house? 24. He spoke of him. 25. Has your friend worn his new coat? 26. He has not worn it yet. 27. Have you thanked your brother? 28. I have thanked him. 29. What have you given to your eldest sister? 30. I have given her nothing, I have nothing to give her. 31. When your brother gave you a book last year, did you thank him? 32. I did not thank him. 33. Is it late? 34. It is not late, it is only six. 35. Is it fine weather or bad weather? 36. It is very fine weather. to me. 1. The terminations of the past definite of irregular verbs are seldom arbitrary, but an irregular verb of one conjugation will sometimes, in this tense, assume the terminations of another 5. It will be seen that the terminations of the second and fourth conjugation. In a few instances the stem [Sect. XXII.] of the conjugations are alike. verb is entirely changed. RÉSUMÉ OF EXAMPLES. 1111 VOIR, to see. LIRE, to read. 1-us. 1-us. 1-ut. v -îmes 1 -ûmes. v -ites 1 -ûtes. v -irent 1 -urent. Vous e-ûtes e -urent new stem, e-us, f-us; être and lire, though belonging to the fourth 2. Avoir and être, it will be perceived, take in this tense a conjugation, take the terminations of the third; and voir, a verb of the third, takes the terminations of the fourth. 3. In other instances, the stem of the verb drops some of its letters, and sometimes adopts others. This may be seen in the verbs life. VOCABULARY. Alné, -e, older, eldest. Avec, with. Se lev-er, 1, ref., to Propriétés, f. pl., prorise. Neuf, -ve, now. perty. Remerci-er, 1, to thank. Séjour, m., stay. VENIR, to come. PRENDRE, to take. Dernier, -e, last. Ordinairement, gene- Semaine, f., week. S'échapp-er, 1, ref., to rally. Pendant, during. Soldat, m., soldier. CRAINDRE, to fear. craign -is craign -is craign -it craign -îmes craign -îtes to know. conn -us conn -us conn -ut conn -ûmes conn -ûtes conduis -imes. conduis -ites. Ils pr-is to conduct. conduis -is. conduis -is. conduis -it. escape. Habillement, m., dress. Pri-er, 1, to beg. EXERCISE 95. 6. 1. Le banquier reçut-il beaucoup d'argent la semaine dernière? 2. Il en reçut beaucoup. 3. Aussitôt que vous aperçûtes votre frère, ne lui parlâtes-vous pas ? 4. Dès que je l'aperçus, je lui parlai. 5. Avez-vous déjà porté vos habillements neufs ? Je ne les ai pas encore portés. 7. Quand il vous donna de l'argent hier, le remerciâtes-vous ? 8. Je le remerciai et je le priai de vous remercier. 9. Avez-vous trouvé vos livres ? 10. Je ne les ai pas encore trouvés. 11. Lorsque vous vîntes nous voir ne finîtes-vous pas vos affaires avec mon père ? 12. Je les finis alors et je le payai. 13. N'avez-vous pas vu votre sœur aînée pendant votre séjour à Lyon? 14. Je ne l'ai pas vue. 15. Ne vous couchâtes-vous pas trop tôt hier au soir? 16. Je me couchai tard. 17. À quelle heure vous êtes-vous levé ce matin? 18. Je me suis levé à cinq heures; je me lève ordinairement de bonne heure. 19. Ne cherchâtes-vous pas à vous échapper de votre prison l'année dernière ? 20. Je n'ai jamais cherché à m'échapper. 21. Avez-vous vendu vos propriétés ? 22. Je ne les ai pas vendues. 23. Qu'avez-vous donné au pr -it pr -îmes pr-ites v -iurent pr -irent 4. Like venir, are conjugated all verbs ending in enir; like and wire; and like prendre, those composed of this verb and a craindre, connaître, and conduire, those ending in indre, aître, prefix, as comprendre, surprendre, etc. craign -irent conn -urent conduis -irent. 5. We would at all times refer the student to the table of irregular verbs, § 62, for those tenses of the irregular verbs with which he is not familiar. |