deprived of his liberty. In April they passed a decree abolishing the torture. Other proceedings of that assembly, tending to the removal of old grievances, were—the admission of plebeians as well as nobles into the military colleges; the application to the use of the military hospitals of sums destined for the use of religious fraternities; and the abolition of jurisdictional seigniories and vassalage. The doctrine of the sovereignty of the nation, however, met with opposition from the royal council, which circulated a paper expressly denying it.

Russia continued throughout the year to waste its population and revenues in its war with the Ottoman Porte.

The state of affairs between Great Britain and the United States still remained unadjusted. Early in the year Mr. Forster was sent over as envoy extraordinary and plenipotentiary. But so long as the English government was determined to maintain the fatal orders in council, nothing could be effected. In the month of May an accidental encounter, originating in some point of naval etiquette, occurred between a British and an American frigate. The two governments equally disavowed intentional hostility; but all these things tended to mutual irritation. On the meeting of congress, on the 4th of November, president Maddison announced the necessity of putting the United States into an armour and attitude demanded by the crisis, and corresponding with the national spirit and expectation.

South America was now involved in all the miseries of civil war. In Mexico several sanguinary engagements during the last and present year terminated in a decided superiority of the royalists. The confederacy of Venezuela placed general Miranda at the head of their forces, and felt themselves strong enough to meet in congress and issue a declaration of independence, conceived in language not less forcible than that of the North Americans on their separation from Great Britain. In the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, the capital, with the greater part of the province, had adopted the cause of independence; while Monte Video held firm to the interest of the mother country.

The most splendid naval achievement of this year was the conquest of the Isle of Java, by an armament fitted out from Madras, under the auspices of lord Minto. The small island of Madura also submitted; and thus not a vestige was left of the eastern dominion of the Gallo-Batavian empire.

Opposing fleets were now no longer to be found on the ocean; but, in the absence of the pride and pomp of war, the public attention was arrested by a remarkably gallant action of an English squadron of four frigates, of which captain Hoste was the commodore. It occurred off the north point of the island of Lesina on the coast of Dalmatia, which the enemy had been sent to fortify and garrison. On the 18th of March the English commodore descried a French force of five frigates and six smaller vessels, with 500 troops on board. Confiding in his superiority the French commodore bore down in two

divisions to attack the English, who formed in a close line to receive him. The action commenced by an attempt of the French commander to practise the manœuvre of breaking the line, in which he failed; and, endeavouring afterwards to round the English van, he was so roughly treated that his ship became unmanageable and ran on the rocks. The action was still maintained with great fury, till two of the French frigates struck. Two others crowded sail for the port of Lessina, and the small vessels dispersed in all directions. The result of this action, which ranks among the most brilliant achievements of the British navy, was the burning of the ship of the brave French commodore, who was killed in the engagement. and the capture of two others. A fourth, which had struck her colors, took an opportunity of stealing away, and was in vain reclaimed as lawful prize by captain Hoste. The loss of the English amounted to 200 in killed and wounded.

The close of this year was remarkable for violent storms occasioning great losses at sea of which the British navy partook in full proportion. Among the domestic occurrences of the year it may be interesting to mention, that a census of the population of Great Britain was taken this year, exhibiting a result highly favorable to the prosperity of the kingdom. The total of the population returned in 1801 was 10,942,646; that of 1811 was 12,552,144; exhibiting an increase of 1,611,882, of which almost every town and district numbered had a share.

The interior tranquillity of England was little disturbed during the greater part of the year, but towards the close of it serious tumults broke out in the districts of the hosiery manufactory, particularly in the county of Nottingham; occasioned by the invention of a wide frame for weaving stockings, and the discharge of many workmen in consequence.

The year on the history of which we are now about to enter will long be distinguished in the annals of Great Britain. The parliament was opened by commission on the 7th of January 1812. The council appointed to assist the queen, acknowledged, that in the opinion of all the physicians, his majesty's complete and final recovery was improbable.

At an early period of the session, Mr. Perceval proposed a plan for the arrangement of the roya. household, and recommended such an addition to the civil list as might support the separate establishments. The state of Ireland, with reference to the Roman Catholics, was brought early in the session under the discussion of both houses, but al concession to the Catholic claims was negatived in the house of lords by 162 to seventy-nine; in the commons by 229 to 135.

In a committee of supply, 13th of April, the sum of £554,441 was moved for as the expense of the barrack department for the current year. Among other items in the estimate, which were thought extravagant, particular exception was taken to the charge of £138,000 for a barrack to be built for the second regiment of life guards, in a piece of ground newly taken in under the

name of the regent's park, and which was generally understood to be designed for an ornament to the park. In repeated debates, on the subject of the barrack estimates, objections were made to this and some other articles; and an amendment proposed for a reduction of the sum was rejected by no greater majority than 134 to 112. This public discussion was not without its effect; for, when the budget was brought forward by the new chancellor of the exchequer, it was announced that the treasury had struck off an additional vote of £90,000 for the barrack department, it having been resolved to postpone the execution of the projected barracks at Maryle-bone park, Bristol, and Liverpool.

Early in the year the cabinet sustained a considerable loss by the resignation of the marquis of Wellesley. The motives of this step were stated to have been a difference with his colleagues as to the scale on which the war in Spain and Portugal was to be carried on. He declared, that on certain principles he would be ready to serve with Mr. Percival, but that he would never serve under him his resignation was accepted on the 19th of February, lord Castlereagh succeeding him in the post of secretary for foreign affairs.

On the 13th of February the prince regent addressed a singular letter to the duke of York, in which he declared, that, the restrictions of the regency act being about to expire, he must make his arrangements for the future administration; his sentiments relative to which he had hitherto withheld, from his earnest desire that the expected motion on the affairs of Ireland might undergo the deliberate discussion of parliament, unmixed with any other consideration. He could not reflect without pleasure on the events which had distinguished the short period of his restricted regency and in regard to the war in the Peninsula, I shall,' said his royal highness, be most anxious to avoid any measure that can lead my allies to suppose that I mean to depart from the present system; and I cannot withhold my approbation from those who have honorably distinguished themselves in support of it. I have no predilections to indulge, no resentments to gratify. Having made this communication, I cannot conclude without expressing the gratification I should feel, if some of those persons with whom the early habits of my public life were formed, would strengthen my hands, and constitute a part of my government. You are authorised to communicate these sentiments to lord Grey, who I have no doubt will communicate them to lord Grenville.'

It

This letter excited no little surprise. seemed particularly strange, that his royal highness could for a moment indulge the expectation that the lords Grey and Grenville, who had rejected with disdain the far more respectful overture of 1809, should now condescend to constitute a part of Mr. Perceval's administration. On the failure of the negociation, which was the result, lord Boringdon, on the 19th of March, moved in the house of lords for an address to the prince regent, beseeching him to form an administration so composed as to unite the con

fidence and good-will of all classes of his majesty's subjects. In the debate, lord Grey stated the points on which lord Grenville and himself had declined a union with the present ministers. These were principally the conduct to be pursued towards the Catholics and towards America..

The existing administration now proceeded unchanged, and without any sympton of want of stability, till it was deprived of its leader by a most tragical incident. On the 11th of May, as Mr. Percevai was entering the lobby of the house of commons about five in the afternoon, a person of the name of Bellingham fired a pistol at him, the ball of which entered his left breast and pierced his heart. He staggered, fell, and almost instantly expired. Nothing could surpass the consternation excited in both houses by this catastrophe. It was however soon discovered, that the act was merely in revenge of some supposed private injury; and that Bellingham, having in a commercial visit to Russia sustained some heavy losses, resolved to make a sacrifice of some conspicuous member of the government which he thought had neglected him. He was tried and executed for the offence; while the general regard entertained for Mr. Perceval's character as a man, even by those who widely differed from him in political opinions, was testified by an ample provision unanimously voted for his widow and family. The earl of Liverpool, on whom the post of leader in the cabinet now devolved, was directed by the prince regent to endeavour to acquire an accession of strength by the association of the marquis Wellesley and Mr. Canning. But his negociation for this purpose failed, on the perplexing topic of the measures to be pursued with regard to the Catholics, and the scale on which the war in the Peninsula was to be carried on. Mr. Stuart Wortley, on the 21st of May, brought a motion before the house of commons for an address to the prince regent, praying him to take such steps as might be the best calculated to form an efficient administration; and an attempt to set it aside by the order of the day was defeated by 174 to 170. Mr. Wortley next moved, that the address should be presented by such members as were of the privy council: to his great surprise it was rejected by a majority of two. At length it was agreed upon, that it should be presented by lord Milton and himself. The answer was that his royal highness would take the address into his serious and immediate consideration.

The marquis Wellesley, and the earl Moira, now each in vain endeavoured to form a stronger ministry. In the house of lords, on the 3d of June, the former stated that the most dreadful personal animosities, and the most terrible difficulties arising out of questions the most compli cated and important, interposed obstacles to an arrangement.' These strong expressions he afterwards explained as not referring to the prince regent, but to the earl of Liverpool and his colleagues, who, however, disdained the imputation.

At length on the 9th of June the prince regent appointed the earl of Liverpool first lord of the

treasury, and Mr. Vansittart chancellor of the exchequer. The earl of Harrowby (late Mr. Ryder) became president of the council; lords Bathurst, Sidmouth, and Castlereagh, were secretaries of state. Viscount Melville was promoted to the admiralty, in the room of Mr. Yorke, who was gratified with the tellership of the exchequer. Lord Eldon continued chancellor, lord Westmoreland privy seal; and the earl of Moira, now honored with the garter, was appointed governor-general of India.

Soon after his accession to office Mr. Vansittart brought forward his plan of finance, or rather, as he said, that of his lamented predecessor, for the current year. The whole of the supply demanded for the United Kingdom was £58,000,000. Of this grand aggregate the sum of £15,650,000 was raised by loan for Great Britain; and for Ireland a separate loan of £4,350,000. Nearly £10,000,000 were funded of exchequer bills; the war taxes were estimated at £20,400,000; a vote of credit was passed for £3,000,000; and the urgent necessities of the East India Company required the sum of £2,500,000. The annual taxes, and consolidated fund, furnished the remainder of the supply, and new taxes were imposed to the amount of nearly £2,000,000.

On the 22d of June Mr. Canning moved a resolution, That this house will, early in the next session, take into consideration the state of the laws respecting the Catholics.' This was supported by lord Castlereagh, who observed, 'that, the obstacles which formerly existed having been removed, the time was now arrived when it was highly proper to take the claims of the Catholics into consideration.' On this joint recommendation the motion was carried by a decisive majority of 225 to 106 members. On a similar resolution proposed in the upper house, by marquis Wellesley, the previous question was put by the lord chancellor, and carried by 126 to 125 peers.

Towards the close of the session Mr. Brougham, in a very able speech on the subject of the orders in council, moved an address to the prince regent, 'beseeching him to recall or suspend those orders, and to adopt such measures as might tend to conciliate neutral powers.' Lord Castle reagh, after deprecating the attempt to urge the house to a precipitate decision,' intimated, that government had in view the adoption of conciliatory measures respecting America. The motion of Mr. Brougham was in consequence withdrawn; and on the 23d of June appeared a proclamation announcing the suspension of the orders in council of January 1807 and April 1809, as far as regarded American property, from the 1st of August following, on the condition that America should, on the regular notification of the same, also rescind or suspend its prohibitory decrees. Unhappily this tardy concession, like all the former conciliatory measures respecting America for forty years past, came too late to be of any avail. On the 30th of July the parliament was prorogued by commission; and on the 29th September it was unexpectedly dissolved.

In Spain, towards the close of the last year, the town of Tariffa in Andalusia, garrisoned by

1000 British infantry, with a detachment of artillery, and a body of Spaniards, was invested by the French with an army of 10,000 men. A breach being made in the wall, the enemy advanced to the assault on the 31st December, when they were obliged to retreat; and, on January 5th, their columns were seen retiring, having left behind them their ammunition, artillery, and stores. This defence was thought to confer great honor on the garrison and its commander, who held out with only 1800 men, behind a weak wall, against a marshal of France. Badajoz was reduced to the utmost extremity. The siege of Ciudad Rodrigo was now pressed; and on the 19th an attack was made in five separate columns, which proved completely successful. The garrison, after a desperate conflict, surrendered to the number of 1700 men besides officers, thus placing in the hands of the captors the heavy train and stores of the French army. The British sustained a severe loss in the death of major-general Mackinnon, who fell at the head of his storming party, and the number of killed and wounded, which was not less than 1200. After strengthening the fortifications, lord Wellington moved the greater part of his army to the southward for the support of general Hill, who was blockading Badajoz with about 12,000 men. On the 6th of April three practicable breaches were made, and a resolution was instantly taken to storm the place. The conduct of a false attack was entrusted to lieutenantgeneral Leith, with instructions to convert it into a real one, should circumstances prove favorable. General Picton in the mean time was to attack the castle by escalade. In an hour and a half he was master of the castle. The light division under Colville, after repeated attempts, was unable to gain the bastions; but the false attack under general Leith, and the other operations of the besiegers, entirely succeeded. The French governor retired into Fort St. Christoval, and surrendered on the following day. The garrison, which originally amounted to 5000 men, had lost in killed and wounded 1200. The British and Portuguese had 800 killed and 2000 wounded. Marmont, after in vain attempting to surprise Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida, now penetrated into Portugal as far as Castello Branco, where he no sooner learnt the result of the siege than he commenced a retreat. Soult, who had reached Villa Franca, also fell back with equal alacrity, pursued by the British cavalry under Sir Stapleton Cotton. On the 11th of April the dragoons under major-general Le Marchant charged the rear-guard of the French with impetuosity, and drove them with the utmost confusion into Llerena.

Lord Wellington appeared before Salamanca with his main army on the 16th of June, when the French general, leaving a force to defend the fortifications, retired with his troops across the Tormes. He afterwards attempted to relieve the forts, which from their strength had been formed into a depôt of stores; but the British general, by a masterly manœuvre, compelled him to abandon them to their fate. Lord Wellington then put his army in motion against Marmont, who retired across the Douro, destroyed the bridges, and concentrated his forces at Tordesillas. Lord Wellington now menaced the Spanish

capital; and a series of skilful movements ensued on both sides, until the 21st of July, when the allied army was concentrated on the Tormes. On the same day the French crossed the river, and appeared to threaten Ciudad Rodrigo. During the 22d and 23d Marmont practised a variety of evolutions to distract the attention of the British general from his real plan, which was to enclose the allies in their position on a peninsula formed by the river, and to cut off their retreat. In aiming to surround the British, he extended and weakened his own line; and lord Wellington, watching the progress of this error, seized the favorable moment for striking a decisive blow.

Major-general Pakenham, with the third division, commenced a furious assault on the flanks of the enemy's left, in which he was supported by brigadier-general Bradford's brigade, by the fourth and fifth divisions, and by the cavalry under Sir Stapleton Cotton in front. The French, though finely posted and supported by cannon, were overthrown. Three entire battalions surrendered; and large quantities of stores, baggage, and ammunition, fell into the hands of the conquerors. Eleven pieces of cannon, two eagles, and six stands of colors were taken; five generals, three lieutenant-colonels, 130 officers of different ranks, and 7000 soldiers, were made prisoners.

Leaving a force under general Paget, to watch the motions of the enemy, lord Wellington now advanced with the main body of his army to the Spanish capital. King Joseph, who with 20,000 men under his command had reached Segovia, hearing of the defeat of Marmont, hastily retreated through Madrid to Almanza, a position from which he could communicate either with Suchet or Soult. On the 12th of August the allied army entered the capital. Aware that their losses had been aggravated by a want of concert, the commanders of the French forces now co-operated in order to retrieve them. On the 24th of August, Soult relinquished the siege of Cadiz, and began to evacuate Andalusia, for the purpose of uniting his forces with those of king Joseph and Suchet. On the 1st of September lord Wellington quitted Madrid, and advanced to Valladolid, the enemy retiring before him across the Puycerga. He pursued them to Burgos, through which city they retired during the night of the 17th, leaving a strong garrison in the castle. Preparations were immediately made for besieging this important place; but the heavy artillery had not arrived, and the uncertain process of sapping and storming failed. On the 21st advices were received, that an army of 70,000 men, under the direction of Soult, Suchet, and the new king, were fast approaching the passes against general Hill, whose force was inadequate to oppose them. This induced lord Wellington to raise the siege of Burgos, to retire towards the Douro, recall his troops from Madrid, and direct general Hill to proceed northward. He moved upon Salamanca, where he hoped to establish himself; but Soult advancing from Madrid, and uniting his forces with Souham, obliged him to continue his retreat. On the 24th of November he fixed his head-quarters at

Freynada, on the Portuguese frontier, after a masterly retreat before an army of 90 000 men, against which he could oppose only 52,000.

The Spanish extraordinary cortes on the 18th of March completed the great work which had so long employed their labors, by the public signature of the constitutional act. Deputies from all parts of the kingdom were present at this ceremony. A commission was appointed to carry the instrument thus signed to the regency; and on the 20th all the deputies assembled in the hall of congress to swear to the constitution; after which the regency entered the hall, and took the oath of office.

Almost from the commencement of the year 1812 the attention of Europe had been directed towards a new scene, which was opening in the north. The emperor Alexander, indignant at the ruin of the trade of his empire, disdained any longer to submit to the restraints of a system, which, though planned solely for the impoverishment of Great Britain, was highly injurious to his subjects. The overthrow of this system was evidently also the interest of Sweden and Prussia: but the resources of Sweden were inconsiderable, and Prussia was in vassalage to France. Russia was the only power that could take the lead in an attempt of that nature, in which, however, she was certain of being supported by Great Britain.

Whatever might be the views of the emperor of France, he began very early in the spring of this year to move numerous bodies of troops into Germany. The Russian monarch, in the mean while, prepared to meet the impending storm; and after issuing a declaration of war, put his armies in motion, and by an imperial ukase, dated the 23rd of March 1812, ordered a levy of two men in 500 throughout his extensive dominions. In the mean time great numbers of French troops joined by the contingents of the Rhenish confederation, proceeded towards the Vistula. The French concluded treaties of alliance with Prussia and Austria; the empero of Russia concluded also a treaty of peace with the Ottoman Porte, and all matters of dispute were settled between Russia and Great Britain. Such were the preparations for the decisive contest which was destined to produce events wholly unparalleled in history. On the 8th of May the French emperor, accompanied by his empress Maria Louisa, set out from Paris, and, on the 11th of that month, arrived at Mentz.

On the 29th of May the emperors of France and Austria departed from Dresden: the former towards the Vistula to take the command of his army, the latter returned to Vienna. The king of Prussia, who had attended at the interview, left that city on the following day: the empress of France, after remaining a few days at Dresden, returned to Paris.

On the 6th of June Napoleon passed the Vistula, announcing his determination of restoring the kingdom of Poland. He, however, attempted to the last to bring the Russian monarch into his views by negociation: but the latter, adhering to his former declaration, made by prince Kurakin, insisted on the evacuation of Prussia by the French troops.

At two o'clock in the morning of the 22nd of June the emperor Napoleon, accompanied by a general of engineers, inspected the banks of the Niemen. The different corps commanded by the viceroy of Italy, and prince of Eckmuhl, the duke d'Elchingen, the duke de Reggio, the duke of Tarentum, and the prince Poniatowski, made corresponding movements; and the pontoon train arrived. The fifth, seventh, and eighth corps, commanded by the king of Westphalia, had proceeded no farther than Novogorod, about half way between the Vistula and the Niemen; and the first Austrian corps, under the prince Schwartzenberg, was near Lublin, at an almost equal distance between Lemburg and Warsaw. The duke of Belluno, with the 9th corps and some other troops, remained in reserve.

Borodino and the redoubts which covered it, but he was ultimately repulsed with great loss. The Russians were then enabled to reinforce their centre, where the battle raged with great fury until night, when the French withdrew at all points, leaving them masters of the field. They estimated their own loss at 40,000 in killed and wounded, and that of the enemy at 60,000.

The plan which the Russians had formed, and according to which they resolved to conduct the present campaign, was, to resist the progress of the invader at all points where a stand could be made without risking a general engagement; to lay waste the country through which he should penetrate; to harass him as he advanced, and to cut off his supplies. Napoleon advanced rapidly to Wilna, the capital of Russian Poland, which he entered on the 28th of June; but a division of the French army under Macdonald received a severe check from general Essen, to whom the defence of Riga was entrusted. Count Witgenstein also defeated marshal Oudinot and the Bavarian general Wrede, at Polotsk, after a conflict of twelve hours.

The emperor of France directed his attention to the main Russian army, which, on the 17th of August, he attacked at Smolensko. After a Furious contest the Russians retired from the city, which the French, on their entrance, found burning. Napoleon gave vent to his chagrin by exclaiming, Never was a war prosecuted with such ferocity. These people treat their own country as if they were its enemies!'

The Russian army now retired upon Viasma, and this place the French entered on the 30th of August: they did not advance till the 4th of September. The interval of preparation, however, was no longer than was necessary for a conAict between two armies, each amounting to more than 120,000 men. It commenced on the morning of the 7th of September, by a tremendous attack on the Russian left, against which nearly one-half of the French force was directed; while marshal Ney bore down on the centre, and Beauharnois assailed the right. Kutusoff finding that his left, after a combat of three hours, was giving way, reinforced it with grenadiers and cavalry from the reserve, when a desperate effort was made to recover the lost position, from which the French were at length driven. Beauharnois made repeated efforts to carry the village of

The advanced guard of the French, under Murat and Beauharnois, entered Moscow on the 14th of September, and soon overpowered the small band which had lingered in the Kremlin, the ancient palace of the czars. The deserted city was discovered to be on fire in several places; and the French soldiers, eagerly seeking their long-promised plunder, rather increased than checked the conflagration. Napoleon was waiting at the barrier on the Smolensko road, to receive the homage of the constituted authorities ere he made his triumphal entry. A Polish general, whom he sent to remind the citizens of their duty, returned with information that there were no authorities, and that Moscow would soon be a heap of ruins. The conqueror entered without parade on the following day, and took up his residence in the Kremlin 'I ventured, into the midst of the flames,' he said to O'Meara, and had my hair and eye-brows singed, and my clothes burned off my back; but it was in vain, as they had destroyed most of the pumps, of which there were above 1000: out of all these, I believe that we could only find one that was serviceable. Besides, the wretches that had been hired by Rostopchin ran about in every quarter, disseminating fire with their matches, in which they were but too much assisted by the wind. This terrible conflagration ruined every thing. I was prepared for all but this: it was unforeseen; who would have thought that a nation would have set its capital on fire?'

This event was evidently a severe disappoint ment to the French emperor, who lingered about this devoted city as if it had still been his intention to retain it. At length, however, the unshaken resolution of the Russians to persist in their system of making all sacrifices rather than submit; the assemblies of fresh bodies of their troops around Moscow, and the approach of inclement seasons, reminded him of the necessity of a prompt retreat. Urged by the clamors of his soldiers, he sent Lauriston with a flag of truce to the Russian head-quarters, announcing his readiness to treat. The answer returned was, that no terms could be entered into while an enemy remained in the Russian terzi ɔry.