shut up, in great straits for provisions, and the Hydriots had landed a body of men with some ship-guns at the Piræus. Hearing, however, of Omer's approach, the Hydriots sailed away, and the Athenians took refuge in the mountains. In Macedonia the Greeks had, in the first instance, been rather successful, and had advanced as far as Salonica; but they pursued no settled plan. Being routed in a few skirmishes, they were seized with a panic, and fled to the treble peninsula of Cassandra, Torone, and Athos. The Greek inhabitants, too, of Mount Pelion, were excited to take up arms, but they were soon overpowered by the Turks.

At sea the Greeks were greatly superior, keeping the Turkish ports and islands of the Egean in complete blockade. Two Turkish ships of the line, however, and some vessels of smaller size, left the Hellespont about the end of May, and proceeded to Lesbos. The Greek fleet met with one of them of seventy-four guns, which ran into the gulf of Adramiti; when the Greeks sent in two fire-ships, chained together, while the Mussulmans stood still on the deck, thinking they meant to board them, and mistaking some figures they had dressed up for men. In a few minutes the Turkish vessel was in flames; and though the captain cut his cables, and let her drive to the shore, the crew took to the sea to save themselves, but were opposed in their attempts to land; so that hardly one out of 800 escaped. The other part of the squadron now made for the Dardanelles with all possible haste. Early in June Demetrius Ipsilanti reached the island of Hydra. He bore a commission from his brother, appointing him commander-in-chief of all the Greek forces, and was accompanied by Cantacuzene and others. He was received with every demonstration of joy. Proceeding to the Morea, he assumed, at Tripolitza, the command of the army. As soon, however, as the disastrous termination of the campaign in the north was divulged, the ardor of his troops cooled, and the ephors, or primates, were deaf to all his propositions. Candiotti soon left the Morea, suspected of having appropriated part of the subscription money he had received. Affendouli also, another partizan of Russia, went to Crete, and obtained the command of the independent forces; but he was soon considered as an impostor, and very nearly lost his life. Ipsilanti's wish was to organise a general and central government for all Greece; and to put the army into a state of discipline. In these plans he met with much opposition; the captains and ephors uniting to oppose him. The events, too, that attended the surrender of the two strong fortresses of Malvasia and Navarin in the month of August gave him still greater disgust. The garrisons of both these places were reduced to a state of starvation, being obliged to eat their slippers; and, in the case of the former, to feed on human flesh, eating their prisoners, and even their own children. The one surrendered to Cantacuzene, and the other to Tipaldo, the Cephalonian, on the faith of being transported in Greek vessels to the coast of Natolia; while, however, these treaties were pending, the news arrived of the murder of the patriarch, and of the Greek clergy, at Adrianople,

and excited the troops to a pitch of fury; a considerable number of the garrisons were therefore sacrificed, and it was with great difficulty, that the generals interposed to save any of them. Ipsilanti, indignant at these disorders, published a proclamation, severely reprehending them; and resigning the command, retired to Leondari, until the alarmed primates and captains sent a deputation to his retreat, and prevailed on him to return.

All eyes were fixed on Tripolitza, which was now in a state of close blockade, and its fall daily expected. The usual population was about 15,000 souls; it is also computed, that the garrison, with all the Albanians of the Kiayah, amounted to 8000 men; there could not, therefore, have been fewer than 20,000 persons within the walls; yet they allowed themselves to be blockaded by 5000 undisciplined and illarmed Greeks without artillery or cavalry. While the Turkish horse were in a state for service, the Greeks did not attempt any thing in the plain; but their forage soon failed, and the only food they could get was vine leaves. Provisions were become very scarce; and the Greeks had cut the pipes, and thus intercepted the supply of water. Ipsilanti, however, was impatient and felt anxious to begin a regular siege; but he had neither proper ordnance nor engineers. Some cannon and mortars had inded been brought from Malvasia and Navarin, and were entrusted to the care of an Italian adventurer, but in the first essay he burst a mortar, and was dismissed. Things were in this state, when prince Mavracordato arrived, bringing with him some French and Italian officers. About the same time arrived Mr. Gordon of Cairness, who, sympathising with the condition of the Greeks, loaded a vessel with cannon, arms, and ammunition, and raised a few followers on whom he could rely. Ipsilanti now resumed his design of disciplining his troops; and Mr. Gordon, who had been an officer in the late wars, assisted in forming companies. In the beginning of October the Turks began to make propositions for a capitulation, and the treaty was proceeding, on the 5th, when an accidental circumstance rendered it of no avail, and hastened the catastrophe. Some Greek soldiers, having approached one of the gates, began to converse, and, as usual, to barter fruit with the sentinels. The Turks imprudently assisted them in mounting the wall, but no sooner had they gained the top than they threw down the infidels, opened the gate, and displayed the standard of the cross above it: immediately the Christians rushed from all quarters to the assault, and the disorder became general. The Turks immediately opened a brisk fire of cannon and small-shot; but the gates were carried; the walls scaled; and a desperate struggle was kept up in the streets and houses. Before the end of the day the contest was over, and the citadel, which held out till the next evening, surrendered at discretion. About 6000 Turks, it is said, perished, some thousands were made prisoners, and numbers fled to the mountains.

While these transactions were occurring at Tripolitza, four pachas proceeded in the month of August from the frontiers of Thessaly and

12,000 peasants were attracted to share its spoils. Scaling ladders were provided, and on the 15th of December at night, arrangements having been made, the attack was commenced, but the assailants were completely driven back. After this failure, prince Demetrius went to Argos, and held frequent meetings of deputies, until Mavrocordato arrived, when Ipsilanti's visitors immediately diminished, and a rivalship was evident between these leaders. Ipsilanti, therefore, despairing of carrying his plans into effect, directed his attention to the war, and soon after went to Corinth with Kiamel Bey, by whose influence it was hoped the surrender of that place would be hastened; while, in order to carry on the siege of Napoli without interruption, it was determined that the congress should be removed to Epidaurus.

The assemblage of a congress has been regarded as a new and important era in the Greek Revolution; the anxiety of the nation for the organising of a government was evident from the eagerness with which the people elected the deputies. By the middle of December not less than sixty had arrived, including ecclesiastics, land-owners, merchants, and civilians, most of whom had been liberally educated. They first named a commission to draw up a political code; the rest were occupied in examining the general state of the nation, and laying plans for the next campaign. On the 27th of January, 1822, the independence of the country was proclaimed, and its code published amidst the joyful acclamations of the deputies, the army, and the people. The government was for the present, styled 'provisional,' while the promulgation of the constitution was accompanied with an address, exhibiting the reasons for shaking off the Turkish yoke. Five members of the congress were nominated as an executive, and prince Mavrocordato was appointed president. Ministers were appointed for the different departments of war, finance, public instruction, the interior,and police; and a commission named of three individuals to superintend the naval affairs.

In the mean time the siege of Corinth was vigorously pushed; but so impregnable was this fortress, that every effort was made to induce the garrison, consisting of not more than 600 men, to surrender. For this purpose Kimail Bey, who had fled from Corinth, leaving his family there, was brought from Tripolitza, in the hope that he might use his influence with the garrison. He, however, proved treacherous, and thwarted the design. A new turn was then given to the operations before Corinth by the arrival of Panowria, a popular chief of Salona, who persuaded the Albanian portion of the garrison to capitulate. On their leaving the place, the Turks declared themselves willing to surrender, and it was stipulated that they should lay down their arms, and be transported by the Greeks to the coast of Asia Minor; but, before the last of these conditions could be fulfilled, the peasants, who had suffered much from the oppressions of Kiamil Bey, burst into the place and wreaked their vengeance on many of them. The new government signalised their liberality by a decree for the abolition of slavery, as well as the sale of any Turkish prisoners, who

might fall into their hands, prohibiting it undethe severest penalties; they also passed another edict for a compensation for military services, and a provision for the widows and orphans of those who should fall in battle; and a third regulaung the internal administration of the provinces. The organisation of the army was also commenced; a corps called the first regiment of the line was formed and officered from the volunteers of different nations, and, as there were more of them than were requisite for this service, a second was formed of the remainder, which took the name of Philhellenes. Patras was blockaded again by 3000 men, and a smaller body under the French colonel Voutier was sent to Athens, to reduce the acropolis; the forces before Napoli were augmented, and Modon and Coron closely invested by the armed peasantry around.

An event, the most terrific and atrocious that history has ever recorded, marked the commencement of the second campaign: the destruction of Scio, and its miserable inhabitants. The Sciots had taken no part in the movement of 1821. In the beginning of May, in that year, a small squadron of Ipsariots appearing off the coast furnished the aga with a pretext for his oppressions, and he began by seizing forty of the elders and bishops; who were immured as hostages for the good conduct of the people.

'On the 23d of April,' says Mr. Blaquiere, ‘a fleet of fifty sail, including five of the line, anchored in the bay, and immediately began to bombard the town, while several thousand troops were landed under the guns of the citadel, which also opened a heavy fire on the Greeks. It was in vain for the islanders to make any resistance: deserted by the Samians, most of whom embarked and sailed away when the Turkish fleet hove in sight, they were easily overpowered, and obliged to fly. From this moment, until the last direful act, Scio, lately so great an object of admiration to strangers, presented one continued scene of horror and dismay. Having massacred every soul, whether men, women, or children, whom they found in the town, the Turks first plundered and then set fire to it, and watched the flames until not a house was left, except those of the foreign consuls. Three days had, however, been suffered to pass, before the infidels ventured to penetrate into the interior of the island, and even then their excesses were confined to the low grounds. While some were occupied in plandering the villas of rich merchants, and others setting fire to the villages, the air was rent with the mingled groans of men, women, and children, who were falling under the swords and daggers of the infidels. The only exception made during the massacre was in favor of young women and boys, who were preserved to be afterwards sold as slaves. Many of the former, whose husbands had been butchered, were running to and fro frantic, with torn garments and dishevelled hair, pressing their trembling infants to their breasts, and seeking death as a relief from the still greater calamities that awaited them.

'Above 40,000 of both sexes had already either fallen victims to the sword, or been selected for sale in the bazaars, when it occurred to the pacha, that no time should be lost in persuad

ang those who had fled to the more inaccessible parts of the island to lay down their arms and submit. It being impossible to effect this by force, they had recourse to a favorite expedient with Mussulmans; that of proclaiming an amnesty. In order that no doubt should be entertained of their sincerity, the foreign consuls, more particularly those of England, France, and Austria, were called upon to guarantee the promises of the Turks: they accordingly went forth, and invited the unfortunate peasantry to give up their arms and return. Notwithstanding their long experience of Turkish perfidy, the solemn pledge given by the consuls at length prevailed, and many thousands, who might have successfully resisted until succours arrived, were sacrificed for no sooner did they descend from the heights, and give up their arms, than the infidels, totally unmindful of the proffered pardon, put thein to death without mercy. The number of persons of every age and sex who became the victims of this perfidious act was estimated at

7000.

'After having devoted ten days to the work of slaughter, it was natural to suppose that the monsters who directed this frightful tragedy would have been in some degree satiated by the blood of so many innocent victims; but it was when the excesses had begun to diminish, on the part of the soldiery, that fresh scenes of horror were exhibited on board the fleet, and in the citadel. In addition to the women and children embarked for the purpose of being conveyed to the markets of Constantinople and Smyrna, several hundreds of the natives were also seized, and, among these, all the gardeners of the island, who were supposed to know where the treasures of their employers had been concealed. There were no less than 500 of the persons thus collected hung on board the different ships; when these executions commenced, they served as a signal to the commandant of the citadel, who immediately followed the example, by suspending the whole of the hostages, to the number of seventy-six, on gibbets erected for the occasion. With respect to the numbers who were either killed or consigned to slavery, during the three weeks that followed the arrival of the capitan pacha, there is no exaggeration in placing the former at 25,000 souls. It has been ascertained that above 30,000 women and children were condemned to slavery, while the fate of those who escaped was scarcely less calamitous. Though many contrived to get off in open boats, or such other vessels as they could procure, thousands, who were unable to do so, wandered about the mountains, or concealed themselves in caves, without food or clothing for many days after the massacre had begun to subside on the plains. Among those who had availed themselves of the pretended amnesty, many families took refuge in the houses of the consuls, who were indeed bound by every tie of honor, and humanity, to afford them protection. It has, however, been asserted, upon authority which cannot well be doubted, that the wretched beings thus saved from Mussulman vengeance, were obliged to pay Jarge ransoms before they could leave the island. Nay more, numbers of those who escaped the

massacre, affirm, that it was extremely difficult to obtain. even temporary protection under the Christian flags, without first gratifying the avaricious demands of those who conceived this ap palling event a legitimate object of mercantile speculation.'

At the commencement of the campaign Colocotroni with 300 inen was despatched to Patras, where a part of the Turkish fleet had landed a great body of men in the latter end of February. On his approach the Turks went to meet him with almost all their force. Colocotroni, not considering himself strong enough for them, retreated to the mountains; but suddenly stopped, addressed his men, and wheeling about advanced towards the enemy. Upon this the Turks, struck with a panic, thinking he had received notice of a reinforcement, turned their backs and were pursued by the Greeks up to the walls of the town; 500 of them were slain in less than two hours, and Colocotroni blockaded the place. The Ottoman fleet was pursued by the Greeks under Mianli and Tombasi, and the admiral's frigate nearly fell into the hands of the Greeks. Marco Bozzaris and Rango gained many advantages in Epirus, and took Arta, the key of Albania; but, owing to the treachery of Tairabos, it was abandoned. Odysseus and his companions endeavoured to check the enemy in Livadia and Negropont; but the disaster of the Greeks at Cassandra so much strengthened them, that they advanced again and threw some reinforcements into Athens.

The fall of Ali Pacha had now so much increased the resources of Choursid, that he concerted measures, which would have been the destruction of the Greek cause, had they been skilfully executed. Mavrocordato, in order to frustrate them, laid a plan to undertake an expedition into Epirus, draw off the Turks from the Morea, relieve the Souliotes, and carry the war into the heart of Albania. He communicated his plan to the executive, and it was determined to place 5000 men at the disposal of the president, who was to lead the expedition in person. The only forces, however, which could be mustered, were the corps of the Philhellenes, and the first regiment of the line, neither of them complete, with 700 men commanded by general Norman and Kiriakouli, to relieve the Souliotes. He arrived at Patras on the 12th of June; but Colocotroni here opposed many difficulties to any of his troops being detached, and he was obliged to leave without the expected assistance. Accordingly he sailed to Messolonghi with only a few hundred men. A large force of the enemy was in the mean time collected at Larissa and Zetonni; Colocotroni suddenly left the blockade of Patras and proceeded with all his army to Tripolitza, leaving an opportunity for the Turkish garrison either to enter the Morea, or cross the Lepanto. Consternation prevailed in the Peloponnesus; Corinth was abandoned and re-occupied by the enemy, not without the suspicion of treachery.

The situation of Ipsilanti was at this time very critical, he had no money or provisions, and hardly 1300 men to oppose to 30,000; he therefore, in order to stop the enemy's progress, threw

himself into the citadel of Argos, while Colocotroni took up the strong position of Lerno on the west of the gulf. The first body of the Turks, consisting of 7000 cavalry and 4000 foot, halted near Argos, and part of it proceeded to Napoli; soon after Marchmout Pacha arrived with 10,000 more, The Pacha, however, entered Napoli, and continued several days inactive; when, threatened with the extremities of famine and drought, he gave orders for the return to Corinth, and his army set out in the greatest disorder. Colocotroni attacked and destroyed 5000 of them in a few hours; the advanced guard was attacked in the defles by the Mainiotes under Nikitas, and 1200 perished in the first onset. These successes happened between the 4th and 7th of August. On the 18th the Pacha attempted to draw the Greeks into an ambuscade, but they got into his rear and he was defeated with great loss; the next day, determining to regain the position they had lost, the Turks again attacked under Hadji Ali, who was slain in the engagement, and nearly 2000 of his men were lost, as well as a large quantity of baggage and several hundred horses. The Greeks, however, had no means of following up their successes.

Ipsilanti advanced to Napoli to assist in its reduction, while the troops left under the command of Coliopulo, not being supplied with rations or pay, became so weary of the service that the greater part withdrew, leaving Colocotroni's eldest son, with 200 or 300 men to continue the blockade of Corinth. Soon after this Colocotroni, at the passes near the isthmus, stopped the Turks who wished to bring succours to Napoli; and they being driven to the greatest extremity of famine, and the Palamida or citadel having been surprised, the garrison had no alternative left them but to surrender: The Greeks took possession of this important place on the 11th of January. The Turkish commanders, on the surrender of Napoli, determined to proceed to Patras, which the Greeks had lately neglected blockading. Setting out in the middle of January, they had reached Akrata near Vostitza, when a detachment from Messolonghi stopped one of the passes, and shortly after another body blocked up the other; so that the Turks were reduced to the greatest straits, feeding upon horses, the herbs on the rocks, their saddles, and at last one another. For nearly three weeks longer the place held out, when Odysseus arriving, and on one of the beys being acquainted with him, a negociation was commenced, by which the garrison obtained permission to embark, and the beys were sent prisoners to Napoli. The number of the enemy that perished on this occasion without firing a shot amounted, it is said, to 2000. Thus ended the second campaign in the Morea, costing the Turks not fewer than 25,000 men in the Peloponnesus alone.

The operations in Epirus, though on a smaller scale, were little less interesting. Mavrocordato put his forces in motion, and first making a feint, as if he wished to reach Salona, returned on the village of Therasova and entered Messolonghi on the 17th of October, where greater difficulties than ever awaited him. Here he was besieged by the Turks, until the 9th

of November, when the blockading squadron was chased away by six vessels bearing the Greck flag; and on the 14th Mavromichalis arrived with the long expected succours; a sortie was then made. But it was of little avail, and the garrison was so much weakened, that Omer Vrioni determined to attack the place. Accordingly on the morning of Christmas-day, at five o'clock, 800 men approached the walls with scaling ladders unperceived, and had even fixed some, but they were instantly cut down; the conflict that followed was desperate and sanguinary, and the Turks were obliged to retire with the loss of 1200 men and nine pieces of colors. The rising now became general through the country, and the retreat of the enemy was intercepted in all quarters; so that of the whole force brought into the country, only three months before, not half escaped. Mavrocordato arrived in the Peloponnesus in the early part of April 1823, after an absence of ten months.

The national congress met at Astros, a small town in Argos, on the 10th of April, 1823, in a garden under the shade of orange trees; nearly 300 deputies were occupied in the debates, which began at sun-rise. The following cath was taken at the first meeting by each member:I swear, in the name of God and my country, to act with a pure and unshaken patriotism, to promote a sincere union, and abjure every thought of personal interest in all the discussions which shall take place in this second national congress.' Having settled a number of important points, its labors ended on the 30th. The third meeting of the congress was deferred for two years; and the executive and legislative body was transferred to Tripolitza, where measures were immediately taken for opening the third campaign.

The enemy was not idle as the summer advanced; a fleet of seventeen frigates, and sixty smaller vessels, was sent with stores to supply the remaining fortresses in Negropont, Candia and the Morea; and, after accomplishing this object, the capitan pacha arrived at Patras about the middle of June. Yusuff pacha led on a large body to Thermopyla, and Mustapha conducted another to the pass of Neopatra, near Zeitouni, the former especially laying waste the whole country, and committing all manner of excesses. Odysseus in the mean time arrived from Athens, and Nikitas from Tripolitza, and a sort of guerrilla warfare was commenced, which so harassed the Turks under Yusuff that they retreated in the greatest disorder. Mustapha was attacked, and forced to take refuge in Negropout at Carystos, where he was closely blockaded. Marco Botzaris, who commanded the Greeks at Crionero, fell on the Turks, and either killed or captured two-thirds of their number. The same brave leader undertook a forced march against Mustapha, who had 14,000 men, while he had only 2000. On assigning each man's part at midnight on the 19th, his last words were, 'If you lose sight of me during the combat, seek me in the pacha's tent.' On his arrival at the centre, he sounded his bugle, as agreed upon, and the enemy, panic-struck, fled in all directions. In the midst of the attack, which was