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ing over your work in an ungraceful or painful attitude. The eye should be as nearly as possible directly opposite the centre of your drawing, and the inclination of your paper and copy should be such that a line passing from your eye to either paper or copy, when you are at work, should pass through the centre of the copy at a in Fig. 35, or the centre of the drawing at b, as nearly as possible at right angles to their respective planes.

longer whilst we make a few remarks upon some of the peculiarities of Angular Perspective. No doubt it is much more difficult to understand than parallel perspective, arising from the great variety of positions in which objects may be placed, for if the lines are, on the one hand, ever so slightly out of the perpendicular from the picture plane, or, on the other, in the least degree vary from the parallel to the picture plane, the treatment necessarily comes under the rules of Angular Per

Fig. 35.

It is unnecessary to give directions as to the manner of holding your pencil. Your own judgment must direct you in a great measure as to that. It matters little, so that you feel the instrument fit your fingers easily. If proper attention has been bestowed upon the primary instructions that we have given, you have already learned the importance of depending not solely on your fingers, but also on the action of the wrist and arm. The hand should not be suffered to rest upon the paper upon which you are drawing, if it can be avoided, but have a spare piece to lay under it while you are at work. It will serve another purpose-to try the points of your pencils upon, or the points of your pens, crayons,

spective. Let us try to make this clear by the help of Figs. 36 and 37.

Fig. 36 is a case of parallel perspective (see p. 72, Fig. 27a). Fig. 37 has its sides a band ef slightly removed from the perpendicular e d, and the sides a e and bf in the same proportion removed from the line e g, parallel to P P; consequently it presents the angle at e to the picture plane. (We shall presently be under the necessity of seeking a little help from Geometrical Perspective, in order to make ourselves more clearly understood.) There is another peculiarity in connection with this relating to the position of the vanishing points; we request the pupil to look at Fig. 38: he will observe that the angle of the building, a b, is nearest the eye, whilst the side a b c d retires one way to v P 1, and the side a bef retires another way to v P 2. Now, when he sees this he will probably say, "Yes, these sides certainly do retire as so stated, but I should like to be informed why these two vanishing points are placed where they are. Is there any rule for so placing them? or is it

and brushes when you are sufficiently advanced to draw with pen and ink, or to paint in water-colours. Begin at once to preserve your drawings in a portfolio. Even when you have failed in many attempts you should keep them by you. Destroy nothing that you do, and you will soon learn to do nothing that you would desire to destroy. Preserve order in the disposition of all your materials: much time and vexation may be saved by Fig. 40. Fig. 41.

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Fig. 36.

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it; and, above all things, remember that what is worth doing, is worth doing well.

We propose now to give some instructions in Angular Perspective; we use this term when the object presents an angle, and not a side, to the picture plane, that is, when the angle is nearest us and all ae sides retire; this occurs especially when all rectangular forms, such as buildings, boxes, and things of a nilar shape and character, are so arranged. (See p. 72, Fig. Before we proceed to explain the method of drawing - placed before us, we must detain the pupil a little

merely a matter of choice?-in short, can I place them anywhere I please?" These are very fair questions, and we will endeavour to answer them. Of course, the house (Fig. 38) must have a ground-plan, which will be placed with regard to the picture plane as it is shown in Fig. 39, the angle towards us, and the sides retiring. Now let us suppose we are standing at S P (station point), from which place we are to make our drawing; from this place we determine our vanishing points, and the distance these vanishing points are apart will determine whether we are near or at a greater distance from the object. Then to

determine our vanishing points, we must give the following geometrical rule:-" Draw a line from the station point, parallel to the ground plan as far as the plane of the picture, from which draw a perpendicular line to the horizontal line (line of sight); this will give the vanishing point." Let us look at Fig. 39, we shall find that the line a b is drawn from s P 1 to the picture plane, parallel to one of the retiring lines of the ground plan, ed, which gives VP1; also a e is drawn parallel to fc, the other retiring line of the ground plan which gives us v P 2. But if the station point had been further off, as at s P 2, the line a b would have been from s P 2 to h; therefore at h would then be found v P 1; so on the other side the v P 2 would have been at i. Suppose the station point were placed at SP 3, then the vanishing points would be nearer each other. So it will be seen, the further the vanishing points are apart, the further we are from the object; and the nearer we are to the object the nearer together are the vanishing points. Our object,

points: for instance, let him trace out the lines a e and b fin Fig. 38, they will meet at v P 2; and the lines on the other side, a c and b d, will meet at v P 1. In an engraving, the vanishing points for all horizontal retiring lines may be found in this way, and they will determine also the line of sight which runs through these points. If he discover that these horizontal retiring lines do not meet in the same point, it will be because they are not parallel retiring lines; that is, the objects themselves are not placed in a parallel position with each other. This leads to another observation connected with this last remark; if there are fifty retiring lines, and all parallel, there will be only one vanishing point for them all; but if amongst these fifty there are not two parallel, there will be fifty vanishing points. As the pupil, we hope, will clearly comprehend this interesting feature in perspective drawing, he may apply the rule when he has an engraving before him. We know that the rectangular tops and bottoms of windows and doors are horizontal, and

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then, in giving this little explanation, is to account for placing the vanishing points. To carry this rule out by producing a drawing of the elevation of the house from the ground plan, will be considered hereafter.

By this explanation we only undertake to satisfy our pupils that we can make a correct drawing of the building if the vanishing point was at h, b, or k; only observe, that if we approached too near, the angle of sight, m, would be too large, so much so as probably to become as great, or greater than 60°. (See p. 72.) While writing these remarks on Angular Perspective, we found that it was absolutely necessary to give these geometrical reasons for the positions of the vanishing points, because as many lines in a picture retire and vanish elsewhere than at the point of sight, we felt bound to give these reasons, which need not cause the pupil to imagine there is anything to discourage him, as the mode of finding them in a picture, as well as when drawing from Nature, is very simple. Here, then, the pupil may ask, "If I have a drawing before me to copy, in which the vanishing points are not marked, how shall I find them?" Let us suppose the copy is an engraving (and the vanishing points are never shown in engravings), let him trace out the retiring lines in the picture we think there can be no difficulty in recognising them-these lines traced out will give the vanishing

parallel with the eaves and horizontal ridges of roofs, the courses of the bricks, etc. Let him trace out as many of these lines as he can, if he understands they are intended, as in the object itself, to go off in the same direction, and he will find them meet at the same vanishing point, and soon discover whether the engraving is correct or not in the grammar. The uneducated eye may not detect small faults in the general appearance of the engraving, and thousands of drawings and paintings by really clever artists pass muster, and are admired, although they may be full of mistakes; just as in speaking, the grammatical errors habitually made by uneducated men are not even known to be such among themselves, but an educated man will notice them, although he may not remark upon them. After the pupil has discovered the vanishing point for the horizontal retiring lines in the engraving, he will then have found the position of the line of sight; then, in making his drawing, he must begin by placing this v P on his paper, and proceed by marking in the nearest line to the vanishing point, and so on, line after line, as we have before said. We know from experience the great advantage of this method, and have frequently remarked the rapid progress that has been made by those who have feared that drawing was an art too difficult for them to attain.

The method of drawing Fig. 38 will be as follows:-Draw the

horizontal line, or line of sight, H L; upon it mark the position of g, being the point nearest the eye, and most easily determined, and hik to the right, and v P 1; then from g again to the left mark m n o, etc., and lastly, v P 2. Where there are more lines crossing the H L, it is advisable to mark them in also in their order. The subject we have before us is a very simple one, but it is enough to explain the process of copying it. Mark a from g, and b from q, and draw the line a gb. From a draw the retiring lines a c and b d to v P 1, also a e and bf to v P 2; through o draw ef, and through k draw c d. As m n, the width of the door, is already arranged, it will be easy to draw it; the top of the door retiring to v P 2, as well as the top of the window on the left of it. The ridge of the roof is over the centre of the building, it is over the centre of the line a c in the object, but not in the drawing; as the line a c retires (the pupil will have observed that as objects retire they occupy less room on the paper; that he may understand this, let him turn back, and examine the examples we have given in parallel perspective), s is the centre of a c in perspective. If we wish to find the centre of a square (Fig. 40), or rectangle (Fig. 41), draw the diagonals ab and cd; e will be the centre; so in perspective, as shown in Figs. 42 and 43. This has been done in Fig. 38, giving t as the perspective of the centre of the end of the house. Draw the perpendicular tp, join p a and p c, draw pr to v P 2, produce ap to v P 3 (see Fig. 33, page 105), and er towards the same point; this will complete the roof. In the remainder we trust the pupil will find no difficulty. Fig. 44 represents two views of the same kind of subject; one when it is above the eye (HL), and the other when it is below the eye. The pupil has probably remarked before this, when considering the position of the line of sight, or horizontal line (HL), that the eye looks up to or underneath all objects, or the parts of an object placed above this line, and looks down upon these objects when placed below this line. This figure will be its own interpreter: as the method of drawing it has been already given, the dotted lines will be a sufficient guide in its execution.

LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-V.

SAXON ELEMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

HAVING shown how the constituents of the English language enter into and form simple propositions, I might now speak of sentences in relation to the laws of their constitution, and exhibit the manner in which simple sentences may be expanded into compound sentences, and how compound sentences may be reduced to simple ones. But there is much, very much, to be learnt respecting the subject-matter already set forth. For instance, every separate part of speech has to be more minutely investigated. Besides, there are general facts which more or less bear on all the constituent elements of speech. These facts must be set forth, and this investigation must be gone through, before we treat of the formation of compound sentences, because in proceeding in this way I shall conduct the learner onward by easier steps.

Before, then, we formally set about building the house, it may be desirable to consider the materials which we shall have to employ, in order that we may become familiar with their qualities and character. Let us then take what is commonly called "The Lord's Prayer," and look a little closely into the words of which it is made up.

dom come.

Our Father which art in heaven, hallowed be thy name. Thy kingThy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven. Give as this day our daily bread. And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors. And lead us not into temptation; but deliver us from evil. For thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory, for ever. Amen.-Matt. vi. 9-13.

Now at the first glance I see that here there are words of diverse origin. Father I recognise as of Saxon birth; temptation I know to be a Latin word slightly altered; and amen is a Hebrew term in English letters. Hence, I am led to see that if I would know my mother-tongue I must study it in relation to the diverse materials which enter into its composition.

You are not yet sufficiently advanced to assign each word in the preceding quotation to the family to which it belongs in the great community of languages. I must, therefore, be satisfied at present with a somewhat rough division of these words into the three classes already indicated-namely, words of Saxon

origin, words of Latin origin, and words derived from other sources. In all, there are in the Lord's Prayer sixty-six words. Of these sixty-six only eight are from sources that are not Saron. More than seven-eighths of the words in the Lord's Prayer come from the Saxon. You may now judge to what extent the Saxon prevails in the English tongue. Of the eight words that are not Saxon, six are from the Latin, one from the French, and one from the Hebrew, as seen in this view :--

Latin.-Name, debts, debtors, temptation, power, glory.
French.-Deliver.

Hebrew.-Amen.

The one French word might be added to the Latin line, for deliver, though it comes into the English directly from the French, is Latin by extraction.

This analysis, however, shows that the materials of the English language may be arranged into two great classes; namely, the Saxon and the Latin. These classes have reference to the origin of the words. Another view may direct our attention to the condition in which the words are. Some of the words are very short, others are somewhat long. Our has only three letters; kingdom has seven; and temptation has ten letters. Our is a word of one syllable; kingdom is a word of two syllables; and temptation is a word of three syllables. Observing that all the words are Saxon, except the eight specified above, you will see that the Saxon words for the most part are short words, and words of one syllable. Of words, however, having more than one syllable, two kinds must be noticed. Take, as an instance, father and kingdom. Now father, though consisting of two syllables, is a simple word; while kingdom is a compound word. Hence arises another division. Words, whether of Saxon or of Latin origin, are either-1, simple; or 2, compound.

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The two compound words here presented, from the Lord's Prayer, may be resolved into their elements thus: forgive is made up of for and give, in German vergeben; deliver comes originally from de, down, from, and liber, free. Now observe, I do not put down the import of the component parts of forgive, for they are known. Words of Saxon origin are known to every Englishman. But I do assign their signification to the terms which combine to make up delwer, since those terms awaken no corresponding state of mind in the mere English student; and consequently their equivalents in terms of Saxon origin must be given. In the progress of these lessons you will be led to study the constituent elements of all our compound words. Here I wish to dwell on the fact, that the vocabulary of the English language consists generally of words derived-1, from the Saxon; 2, from the Latin.

In order to possess a full and exact acquaintance with the Saxon treasure of our language, you must study that language historically; you must study it in its literature; and you must study the Anglo-Saxon in its productions, and in the laws of it structure. Apart from so prolonged a labour, you may here learn something on the subject, and at any rate acquire infor mation which, in general, will enable you to distinguish and recognise words which come from a Saxon source. I lay before you some results of the investigations made by the learned or this subject.

The English language consists of about 38,000 words. Of these, about 28,000, or nearly five-cighths, are of Anglo-Saxon origin. The majority of the rest are Latin and Greek; of which the former has the larger share. If we look not merely to the number of words, but to their kind, as well as to the share that Anglo-Saxon has had in the formation of our language, we shall see how important is this element of the English tongue.

1. English grammar is almost exclusively occupied with what is of Anglo-Saxon origin. Our chief peculiarities of structure and of idiom are essentially Anglo-Saxon, while almost all the classes of words which it is the office of grammar to investigate, are derived from that language. What few inflections we have are all Anglo-Saxon. The English genitive, the general modes of forming the plural of nouns, and the terminations by which we express the comparative and superlative of adjectives, er and est; the inflections of the pronouns; of the second and third persons, present and imperfect of the verbs; of the preterites and participles of the verbs, whether regular or irregular; and

the most frequent termination of our adverbs (ly), are all AngloSaxon. The nouns, too, derived from Latin and Greek, receive the Anglo-Saxon terminations of the genitive and the plural; while the preterites and participles of verbs derived from the same sources, take the Anglo-Saxon inflections. As to the parts of speech, those which occur most frequently and are individually of most importance, are almost exclusively Saxon. Such are our articles and definitives generally, as a, an, the, this, that, these, those, many, few, some, one, none; the adjectives whose comparatives and superlatives are irregularly formed, | and which in every language are amongst the most ancient, comprehensive in meaning, and extensively used; the separate words more and most by which we as often express the forms of comparison as by distinct terminations; all our pronouns, personal, possessive, relative, and interrogative; nearly every one of our so-called irregular verbs, including all "the auxiliaries" hare, be, shall, will, may, can, must; all the adverbs most frequently employed; and the prepositions and conjunctions almost without exception.

2. The names of the greater part of the objects of sense-in other words, the terms which occur most frequently in discourse, or which recall the most vivid conceptions-are Anglo-Saxon. Thus, for example, the names of the most striking objects in visible nature, of the chief agencies at work there, and of the changes which pass over it, are Anglo-Saxon. This language has given names to the heavenly bodies, sun, moon, stars; to three out of the four elements, earth, fire, water; three out of the four seasons, spring, summer, winter; the natural divisions of time, as day, night, morning, evening, twilight, noon, midday, midnight, sunrise, sunset; some of which are amongst the most poetical terms we have. To the same language we are indebted for the names of light, heat, cold, frost, rain, snow, hail, sleet, thunder, lightning; as well as of almost all those objects which form the component parts of the beautiful in external scenery, as sea and land, hill and dale, wood and stream. The same may be said of all those productions of the animal and vegetable kingdoms which form the most frequent subjects of observation or discourse, or which are invested with the most pleasing and poetic associations; of the constituent parts or visible qualities of organised or unorganised beings, especially of the members of the human body and of the larger animals. Anglo-Saxon has also furnished us with that numerous and always vivid class of words, which denote the cries, postures, and motions of animated existence. These are amongst the most energetic that any language can supply; for the same reason that words expressive of individual objects are always stronger than general terms. It is a sound and universal maxim of rhetoric, that the more abstract the term is, the less vivid; the more special, the more vivid is the impression. Now, almost all the words which are expressive of these specialities of posture and bodily action, are the purest Saxon; such as, to sit, stand, lie, run, walk, leap, stagger, slip, slide, stride, glide, yawn, gape, wink, thrust, fly, stim, creep, crawl, spring, spurn. If all this be true, we need not be surprised at the fact that, in the descriptions of external Nature, whether by prose writers or by poets, the most energetic and graphic terms are almost universally Anglo-Saxon. It is as little matter of wonder that in those simple narratives in which gemins and wisdom attempt the most difficult of all tasks-that of teaching philosophy without the forms of it, and of exhibiting general truths in facts and examples, leaving the inferences to be drawn by the instinctive sagacity of human nature—the terms are often, almost without exception, Anglo-Saxon. It is thus with the narratives of the Old Testament-the history of Joseph, for instance-and with the parables of the New Testament, perhaps the only compositions in the world that can be translated without losing much in the process, and which, into whatever language translated, at once assume a most idiomatic dress. The same remark holds good to a certain extent of “Robinson Crusoe," "The Vicar of Wakefield," and other works in which the bulk of the words are pure Anglo-Saxon.

3. It is from this language we derive the words which are expressive of the earliest and dearest connections, and the strongest and most powerful feelings of our nature; and which are, consequently, invested with our oldest and most complicated associations; their very sound is often a spell for the orator and the poet to conjure withal. It is this language which has given names for father, mother, husband, wife, brother, sister, son, daughter, child, home, kindred, friends. It is this which has fur.

nished us with the greater part of those metonymies and other figurative expressions, by which we represent to the imagination, and that in a simple word, the reciprocal duties and enjoyments of hospitality, friendship, or love. Such are hearth, roof, fireside. The chief emotions, too, of which we are susceptible, are expressed in the same language, as love, hope, fear, sorrow, shame; and what is of more consequence to the orator and the poet, as well as in common life, the outward signs by which emotion is indicated, are almost all Anglo-Saxon; such are tear, smile, blush, laugh, weep, sigh, groan.

4. Most of those objects about which the practical reason of man is employed in common life, receive their names from the Anglo-Saxon. It is the language for the most part of business, of the counting-house, the shop, the market, the street, the farm. 5. Anglo-Saxon, also, are nearly all our national proverbs, in which, it is truly said, so much of the practical wisdom of a nation resides, and which constitute the manual or vade-mecum ("go with me;" that is, the pocket-book, or note-book) of "hobnailed philosophy."

6. A large proportion (and that always the strongest) of the language of invective, humour, satire, and colloquial pleasantry, is Anglo-Saxon; also all the terms and phrases by which we most energetically express anger, contempt, and indignation. VII. It may be stated, as a general truth, that while our most abstract and general terms are derived from the Latin, those which denote the special varieties of objects, qualities, and words of action, are derived from the Anglo-Saxon. Thus, move and motion, very general terms, are of Latin origin; but those terms which express nice varieties of bodily action, are Anglo-Saxon. Sound is perhaps Latin, though it may be AngloSaxon; but to buzz, hum, clash, hiss, rattle, etc., are AngloSaxon. Colour is Latin; but white, black, green, yellow, blue, red, brown, are Anglo-Saxon. Crime is Latin; but murder, theft, robbery, lie, steal, are Anglo-Saxon. Member and organ, as applied to the body, are Latin and Greek; but ear, eye, hand, foot, lip, mouth, teeth, hair, finger, nostril, are Anglo-Saxon. | Animal is Latin; but man, cow, sheep, calf, cat, are Anglo-Saxon. Number is immediately French, remotely Latin; but all our cardinal and ordinal numbers are Anglo-Saxon. With these facts before us we need not wonder that the orator and the poet are recommended to cultivate assiduously the Anglo-Saxon portion of the language. "The common people," it is said, "cannot understand words which are of classical origin." And this is a good reason for the advice. But it is not the only reason. The great object of the orator and the poet is to make their meaning felt; to stimulate the imagination, and thence excite emotion. They therefore seek the most special terms they can find. Again, the terms which cæteris paribus (two Latin words meaning "other things being equal") most vividly recall the objects or feelings they repre sent, are those which have been earliest, longest, and most fre quently used, which are consequently covered with the strongest associations, the sign and the thing signified having become so inseparably blended that the one is never suggested without the other. And thus it is that of two synonymes (words having nearly the same meaning) derived respectively from Latin and the Anglo-Saxon, both equally well understood, the one shall impart the most vivid, and the other the most tame conception of the meaning. It is precisely for the same reason that the feelings with which we read beautiful passages in foreign poets are so faint and languid, compared with those which are exerted by parallel passages in Shakspeare, Milton, or Burns. When our readers meet with any word that they do not understand in the course of a lesson, it will be good practice for them to write it down at once and turn to an English dictionary for its meaning. If possible, the dictionary used should be an Etymological Dictionary," that is, one which shows the sources, whether Latin, Greek, French, or otherwise, from which English words are derived. We append an example of the plan that may be adopted in tabulating words that are difficult to understand at first sight in the following, which are selected from this page:

WORD. Comprehensive.

Graphic.

66

MEANING. Extensive, full.

Stimulate.

Describing clearly.
Rouse, excite.
Tale, story.

Narrative.

DERIVATION.

Latin, con, with; prehensus. caught, or laid hold of.

Greek, graphō, to write.

Greek, stizō, to prick or goz

Latin, narro, to relate.

LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY.-V.

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES OF THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES.

THE new information gained by the Old World through the discovery of America, and the voyage of Vasco de Gama, required a long period for its proper regulation and systematic arrangement. The ignorance which still prevailed among the ablest navigators and geographers, at the end of the fifteenth century, was such that when Christopher Columbus, in his third voyage, discovered the mainland of America, the violence of the billows, and the agitation of the sea at the mouth of the Orinoco, led him to believe that he was in the highest part of the globe, and consequently in the regions of Paradise! But the discovery of the New World revived and re-invigorated the desire for voyages to the north, and set them on a better footing. It appears, indeed, that previous to his grand discovery, Columbus had himself performed a voyage in the northern seas, and had even visited Iceland. This voyage, according to a note of the event found in his own handwriting, took place in 1467.

The

John and Sebastian Cabot, who were employed in the expedition by Henry VII. of England, discovered Labrador, as we have shown in our last lesson, and are said to have visited the island of Newfoundland, and sailed along a considerable extent of the coast of North America. France, desirous of having her share of the spoil, fitted out an expedition under Jacques Cartier, who sailed from Dieppe in 1534; discovered Canada, and took possession of it in the name of his government. grand object of these voyages in the northern seas, was the discovery of a north-west passage to India. The question of a communication between the two great oceans at the north, occupied the minds of geographers and navigators at that period, as much as it has done in the present century. How singular that this infatuation has so much occupied the public mind! Even on the supposition that such a passage really existed, and had been actually discovered, and put in evidence by the reappearance of Franklin in Europe from the East, of what use would such a frightful and dangerous passage be to the mercantile interests of the world? Surely it would still be better to pursue the ordinary route to India, either by sea or land, than to run the danger and risk of losing ships, property, and men, by sailing through floating mountains of ice, unknown rocks, and uninhabited and inhospitable coasts.

which has immortalised his name, and determined the geographi cal position of a great number of points.

During the sixteenth century, while discoveries were multiplied and expeditions became fruitful and productive, geographical science still remained in its infantile state, and as yet received little advantage from their progress. Light was breaking in upon all sides, but this science was immersed in darkness. A glance at the curious maps which preceded the glorious era of the Reformation, will show how profound was the ignorance of the geographers of that period. Our readers will find a good specimen of one of these maps in the fac-simile of the map of Africa belonging to the pilot of Christopher Colum bus. In such maps of the world, the principal cities are denoted by little houses or churches roughly sketched: Jerusalem occupies the centre of the globe; the supposed site of Paradise is surrounded with an impenetrable enclosure of verdant foliage; and the geographical illustrations are the most whimsical that can be imagined. The winds are represented by fabulous divinities, as sitting all round the world upon leathern bottles, whose sides they are pressing to force out the air; Western Africa is made to terminate at Cape Nun, then at Cape Bojador; the celebrated statue of the Canaries is seen flourishing his club at the top of a high tower; the coasts of the adjacent continent

SHIPS OF COLUMBUS. From an old Print.

The voyage of Willoughby in 1553, although it ended in a sad shipwreck on the eastern coast of Lapland, added to geographical knowledge, by the discovery of Nova Zembla. Frobisher, under Queen Elizabeth, was more fortunate; his three voyages, performed between 1576 and 1578, ended in some discoveries, among which was the strait which bears his name, situated between Hudson Strait and Cumberland Sound. John Davis, in the same reign, in his exploratory voyages performed in 1585, 1586, and 1587, threw a clearer light on the geography of the circumpolar regions of the north. In 1596 the Dutch discovered Spitzbergen; and eleven years afterwards it was re-discovered by Hudson, who made four voyages, from 1607 to 1611, in order to find the passage to India either across the pole itself or to the north-west. In the fourth, he discovered the bay which bears his name. In the following year Thomas Button, penetrating into this northern Mediterranean Sea, reached the mouth of the river Nelson. William Baffin enjoyed still greater success. In his second exploratory voyage, in 1616, he successively discovered and gave name to the places in the arctic regions:-Cape Dudley Digges, in 35 N.; Wolstenholme Bay; the Bay of Whales, 30' N.; Hakluyt Island; Smith Bay, so called as Smith, in latitude 78° N.; the Carey Islands, Sound. In this expedition, he explored the bay

are lengthened in proportion to the discoveries of the Portuguese; Abyssinia figures with its monarch Prester John, having on his head a brilliant mitre; the other kingdoms of Africa are denoted by their kings in costumes, enriched with gold and silver embroidery; this continent, so long unknown, is represented as peopled with strange animals and black men: there are groups of giraffes and elephants; Portuguese camps are indicated by coloured tents; and light cavalry, splendidly caparisoned, are making the tour of this mys terious continent. In short, these speci mens of chartographical art are the faithful expression of the science of the Middle Ages. The pilot's map, already alluded to, will furnish the reader with examples of the preceding details.

The period preceding the Reformation was the era of legendary and popular tales, and geography had its fabulous age as well as its antiquity; only the fantastic notions of the Middle Ages were less marked by ingenuity and variety. Prester John has been mentioned. This was one of their most widely-spread myths. The name of this personage first appeared about the middle of the twelfth century. It was the general and popular belief that there existed a pontifical prince called John, who governed vast countries situated beyond Armenia and Persia. It was asserted that he professed that form of Christianity called Nestorianism. Ere long he was transported to Abyssinia, where he ruled during three or four centuries! He was as rich as he was powerful, and as formidable to his enemies as he was dear to his subjects. In Asia or in Africa there was always a formidable monarch, dwelling in a world of prodigies, over which he reigned as omnipotent master!

The vain tradition of El Dorado, or the Land of Gold, was no less believed at the period under review. This fiction, which travelled to America under the name which has given celebrity to it, in the first half of the sixteenth century, was applied to a country that previously existed only in the imagination of the inhabitants of Europe. Although its true name is lost, it was at last placed in the New World, in the country of Santa Fé, in those regions of South America watered by the mighty streams of the Amazons, and which were scarcely known to Europeans. The name El Dorado sufficiently indicates the nature of the imaginary country to which it was applied. It was the country of riches; there were to be seen cities glittering with gold; there, so common was this metal, that it was used even in the most common household utensils. How unfortunate for ages were the adventurers in search of this golden dream! How many victims have been deceived by this dangerous tradition!

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