and longitudes of He constructed the projection of the president of the efore Hipparchus, mmerce of the Red He was the first lans; he mentions Lag of Egypt on the working them, and the of the tools of copper en used by the native try by the Persians. tied new information to ngue East. He visited Egypt west 130 B.C.; and besides wards accomplished the razzent. Strabo, who gives ames, attempts repeatedly to tatements; but they have FRENCH.-III. 329CNUNCIATION (continued). ID OF THE VOWELS. se wri mark aloud several times, with This vowel is sometimes under a grave accent, thus-à là, voilà; but its sound is not materially affected thereby. 33. Â, â.-Under the circumflex accent, this vowel has the long sound represented by a in the English word mark, and is named ah. It has, besides, a little more than the sound just spoken of, for the sound must be prolonged, and to do this conveniently, the mouth must be opened a little wider than in uttering its short sound, represented by a in the English word fat. Be careful, however, not to pronounce A & like the sound of the English word awe, but give it the sound of ah prolonged, in the following examples, namely: and thus you have the sound of the vowel e, which deserves the ke the letter a in the English different ways, and hence it has five different names, namely:- et sound. ways belongs to the French letter wes not always and invariably have this FRENCH. Abacus. Killing. Al-ga-rad Insult. Autrement, Entrevoir, Paiement, etc. has, therefore, two distinct sounds, viz.:- before a and o is silent, as in Jean and Georges. In the word contenance both e's are silent; ordinarily, the e The English word fat. the English word mark. english letter a will be used to illustrate ne French vowel a; and ah will be used to wound of the French vowel a. ve wound represented by a in the English word a word by itself, and generally when it begins or 15. a wood. There are exceptions to this rule; but Carly noticed by the reader in the spelling by a lettera, designed to illustrate the pronunciation ་ volt upon the short sound of the French vowel ew, exaudos. Pronounce every French word in saldo aloud, and, when possible, always study your RÉSUMÉ OF EXAMPLES. Avez-vous quelque chose? Votre sœur a-t-elle faim on soif ? Mon ami n'a ni sommeil ni peur. Is anything the matter with you? He is neither cold nor warm. My friend is neither sleepy nor afraid. I have neither milk nor wine. 1. Qui a sommeil? 2. Mon frère a faim, mais il n'a pas sommeil. 3. Avez-vous raison ou tort? 4. J'ai raison, je n'ai pas tort. 5. Avez-vous le bon fusil de mon frère ? 6. Je n'ai pas le fusil. 7. Avez-vous froid aujourd'hui ? 8. Je n'ai pas froid; au contraire, j'ai chaud. 9. Avez-vous de bon pain? 10. Je n'ai pas de pain. 11. N'avez-vous pas faim? 12. Je n'ai ni faim ni soif. 13. Avez-vous honte ? 14. Je n'ai ni honte ni peur. 15. Avons-nous du poivre ou du sel? 16. Vous n'avez ni poivre ni sel. 17. Quel livre avez-vous ? 18. J'ai le livre de mon cousin. 19. Avez-vous le marteau de fer ou le marteau d'argent ? 20. Je n'ai ni le marteau de fer ni le marteau d'argent, j'ai le marteau de bois du ferblantier. 21. Avez-vous quelque chose? 22. Je n'ai rien. 23. Avez-vous le gros livre du libraire ? 24. Je n'ai ni le gros livre du libraire, ni le petit livre du menuisier ; j'ai le bon livre du capitaine. EXERCISE 10. 1. Are you sleepy, Sir? 2. No, Sir, I am not sleepy, but I am hungry. 3. Have you pepper or salt? 4. I have neither pepper nor salt; I have cheese. 5. Is your brother thirsty or hungry? 6. My brother is neither thirsty nor hungry. 7. Is your sister right or wrong? 8. She is not wrong, she is right. 9. Is the good joiner afraid? 10. He is not afraid, but ashamed. 11. Have you milk or cheese? 12. I have neither milk nor cheese; I have butter. 13. Have you the fine cloth or the good tea? 14. I have neither the fine cloth nor the good tea. 15. Is anything the matter with you, my good friend? 16. Nothing is the matter with me, my good Sir. 17. Have you no bread? 18. Yes, Madam, I have good bread, good butter, and good cheese. 19. Is the carpenter sleepy ? 20. The car penter is not sleepy, but the tinman is hungry. 21. Have you the tinman's wooden hammer? 22. I have not his wooden hammer. 23. Which hammer have you? 24. I have the steel hanmer. 25. Have you a good cloth coat? 26. No, Sir, but I have a silk dress. 27. Has the tailor the good gold button? 28. Yes, Sir, he has the good gold button. SECTION VII.-PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 1. The pronouns le, him, it; la, her, it, are, in French, placed before the verb.* These pronouns assume the gender of the noun which they represent. Voyez-vous le couteau ? m., Je le vois, Voyons-nous la fourchette? f., Nous la voyons, Do you see the knife? Do we see the fork? 6. The possessive pronouns le mien, m., la mienne, f., mine; le tien, m., la tienne, f., thine; le sien, m., la sienne, f., his or hers, can never be prefixed to nouns. The article preceding these pronouns, and forming an indispensable part of them, takes the gender of the object possessed; mien, tien, sien, vary for the feminine-nôtre and vôtre used as pronouns have the circumflex accent. 1. Avez-vous la fourchette d'argent? 2. Oui, Monsieur, je l'ai. 3. Le cuisinier a-t-il le bouf? 4. Non, Monsieur, il ne l'a pas. 5. Quel mouton avez-vous ? 6. J'ai le bon mouton et le bon veau de boucher. 7. Votre parent a-t-il la commode? S. Non, Monsieur, il ne l'a pas. 9. A-t-il mon poisson? 10. Qui a tout le biscuit du boulanger? 11. Le matelot n'a ni son pain ni son biscuit. 12. A-t-il son couteau et sa fourchette ? 13. Il n'a ni son couteau ni sa fourchette, il a son assiette. (R. 4.) 14. Quel plat a-t-il ? 15. Il a le joli plat de porcelaine. 16. Avez-vous le mien ou le sien? 17. Je n'ai ni le vôtre ni le sien, j'ai le nôtre. 18. Avez-vous peur, Monsieur ? 19. Non, Madame, je n'ai pas peur, j'ai faim. 20. Quelqu'un a-t-il ma montre d'or? 21. Non, Monsieur, personne ne l'a. 22. Qu'avezvous, Monsieur? 23. Je n'ai rien. EXERCISE 12. 1. Have you the silver pencil-case? 2. No, Sir, I have it not. 3. Have you my brother's plate? 4. Yes, Madam, I have it. 2. The vowel of the pronouns le and la is elided before a verb 5. Has the butcher the good biscuit? 6. He has it not; he commencing with a vowel or an h mute [§ 146]. Avez-vous le bâton? m., Je l'ai, Have you the stick? Have we the cane? • Except in the second person singular, and in the first and second persons plural of the imperative, used affirmatively. has the good beef, the good mutton, and the good veal. 7. Have you my knife and my fork P* 8. I have neither your knife nor your fork. 9. Who has the good sailor's biscuit? 10. The baker has it, and I have mine. 11. Have you mine also? 12. I have neither yours nor his. 13. Are you hungry? * The possessive adjective must in French be repeated before every noun [§ 21 (4)]. No 3. Have you Fig. 20, 21, in these the marked in the Br freat care that about to copy is composed; and he must also be exact in determining the relative position of the points in which these lines meet or intersect. When to these directions we have added the following-namely, that the learner must also carefully observe the lengths of the lines which form the angles, we have given in very few words the instructions that he chiefly requires to enable him to draw forms, such as ornamental scrolls, flowers, leaves, single figures, etc., in delineating which he can have no assistance whatever from the rules of linear perspective. Knowing from practical experience the necessity of repeating instructions whilst personally engaged in teaching, we trust the pupil will consider our repeating in various ways the more important and essential regulations which guide the mind, and consequently the hand, as intended to convey a deep impression of their importance. Before commencing a drawing it should invariably be the with regard to, each practice of the pupil, when he has placed his copy before him, I whether it be a drawing or the object itself, to look carefully over it for a few minutes, and examine its contours-that is, the bendings of the curves, and the forms which a combination of these curves present. By this close examination of the subjeet his mind will receive such an impression of it that, as he comes to understand its form, first as a whole, and the details afterwards, the hand, which is only an instrument, will readily execute the suggestions which the mind has received. There are many who make the great mistake of supposing that the hand is to receive all the attention in training; on the contrary, let the mind fully understand the subject, and then the hand will need less practice in order to fulfil its requirements. In short, educate the mind, and the education of the hand will follow. Fig. 24, a purse, is almost entirely an example of curved lines, like the vine leaf (Figs. 18, 19), but in this there is more uniformity that is, the opposite sides have a reversed resemblance to each other. The pupil must notice the position of a and b, c and d, also a and c, b and d, and so on, with every other angle or remarkable change which a line takes in its curvature. Perhaps after this remark it will be better to leave the pupil to himself whilst copying this subject, as by this time he must be, we hope, able to anticipate much that would be only a repetition of the principles already laid down. We have given a vine leaf as a further illustration of this method of arranging a drawing-that is, marking in its characteristic points and angles. (See Figs. 18 and 19). Fig. 18 is the first part of the work, which must be carried out as follows:Commence at some important and leading feature of the object, say the centre, at a; mark in b; observe the inclination of a to b; join a b; mark in c; also observe the distance of c from b; join a c. The line a de will be found not a direct line, d is the point where it varies; mark d first and e next; join a d and de; a fg is a similar line; also a hi. These are the great and leading characteristic lines and points, which it would be advisable to mark in the order we have written direct lines and curves, advising the pupil not to shade his drawings for the present, until he has gained sufficient confidence in outline. The value and importance of a correct and ready method of drawing the simple forms of objects cannot be over-estimated. He who is master of this enviable power can apply it to any branch of art he pleases. The greatest impediment to the progress of many a pupil is most likely to arise from his impatient desire to arrive, without a moment's delay, at the power of making a drawing. Irregular and misdirected efforts in copying drawings of cottages and stumps of trees appear to be a much more pleasant task than the performance of exercises so arranged as to lead the student from the knowledge of one principle to an acquaintance with another; nevertheless, the latter is essential to him who wishes to be master of drawing. The training of the hand and the eye which such exercises are calculated to impart, will make the copying of a large number them. The secondary parts are ik c, i m n o p g. The points r and s, t and u, must be arranged with an eye to c, b, and e. These are the minor divisions, all of which must be respectively joined together by straight lines, or in some special cases by a curve, as from r to t, or v to e. Partially rub out the arrangement—that is, "faint it," and then draw the finished outline as in Fig. 19, which may be, in the detail, further "marked in," as the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. Let the student compare both figures as he proceeds. As the above instructions apply to all flat objects, whether composed of straight or curved lines, we again urge most earnestly the strict observance of this practice, as so much depends upon it for the understanding and successfully carrying out of all that we shall have to advance hereafter in these lessons. We have added in Figs. 16 and 17, and some smaller copies in outline (which are without numbers, as there is no necessity to make any special reference to them in our remarks), a few examples for practice, of subjects in the flat, composed of of simple figures as easy as it is to make alphabetical characters by the conjunction of "straight strokes, pot-hooks, and hangers." The simple figures we are setting before the learner in these early lessons constitute in fact the alphabet of drawing, and with these, if he would make himself a sound draughtsman, he must become well acquainted; for just as the combination of letters, syllables, and words, forms in the printer's hands either a poem or an auctioneer's catalogue, so does the application of the elements of linear drawing constitute, in the hands of the artist, an historical picture, a portrait, a landscape, a design for an ornamental framework, or the plan and elevation of a building. Unacquainted with these elements, how much industry, and even talent, has many a youth thrown away! Let us take an instance of such a youth. He makes his earliest essays, it r be, at copying some finished production, or some els engraving. He tries his best to produce a neat and copy, and he endeavours to give the details of his |