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turn the lower surface of the frond upperevil be seen many rows of dark stripes. These d, and they contain the sporules of the plant, therefore may be got by opening the sporidia. en regarded by the naked eye, look almost like ...examined under a microscope, however, their outline ⚫ay recognised. The difference between a sporidium dia) and a real seed may be thus explained. y one part (the embryo or germ) from which the nt can spring; whereas a sporule does not refuse to my side which may present itself to the necessary ...ns of earth and moisture.

Juga the sporules are thus easily discoverable in the fern et e botanical student must not expect to find them readily in other members of the cryptogamic tribe, in us members of which not only does their position vary, Is their presence is totally undiscoverable.

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SECTION III. ON THE ORGANS OF VEGETABLES.

Vegetable organs admit of the very natural division into those intended for nutriment and growth, and those intended for propagation. Hence we may speak of them as nutritive and reproductive organs. Nutritive organs consist of leaves, stems, branches, roots, and various appendages to all of these, hereafter to be described; whilst the reproductive organs of vegetables are flowers and their appendages.

The Root.-We have already seen that it does not suffice to constitute a root that the portion of the vegetable treated of be underground. Thus, for example, as it was remarked in the preceding lesson, the potato is not a root, but a tuber; an onion is not a root, but a bulb.

A root may be defined as a filamentous or thread-like (Latin Blum, a thread) offset from the descending axis of the plant, differing from the stem itself in certain relations of a botanical structure, and each filament ending in a soft absorbent tuft

denominated the spongiole, the function of which consists in absorbing moisture, and conveying it into the structure of the plant. Hence the chief and primary use of the root is that of nutrition; but it also serves as a means of enabling the plant to take firm hold of the earth in which it grows. Representations of various roots are shown in Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. In most cases, the part at which the stem ends and the root begins is well defined. It is denominated the collar. Although the general characteristic of the root is to seek the ground, as the characteristic of the stem is to seek the air, nevertheless stems frequently assume a tendency to become roots, and roots to become stems. A very remarkable example of the former tendency is furnished by the banyan tree, or ficus religiosa, a native of India. This tree has a natural tendency to shoot down prolongations from its stem, which, taking root, cover the ground with an arbourlike growth of most fantastic appearance. The opposite tendency is recognisable in certain varieties of the elm, which shoot up sprouts from the root over large tracts of ground in the vicinity of the parent trunk, very much to the annoyance of the farmer, whose land is thus considerably damaged. Although the essential cha racteristic of a stem is to ascend into the air, yet certain forms of stem in some vegetables exist underground; of this kind are ginger, and the so-called orris-root. Stems of this kind are known in botany by the appellation of rhizomes (Fig. 3).

3. RHIZOME AND ROOT-LEAVES OF THE PRIMROSE.

Usually the root is attached by the collar to an ascending stem, from which latter proceed the leaves; in certain plants, however for instance, the primrose-there is no ascending stem, but an horizontal, underground one (the rhizome) takes

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say, stole-bearing, which expression requires the previous explanation of the word stole. A stole, then, is a little stem which springs from the axilla (literally, arm-pit), or point at which the leaves spring from the stem. The strawberry (Fig. 4) affords a common and well-marked illustration of this kind of root.

A bulb is an underground bud, from the upper part of which the stem arises, and from the lower part of which the root descends (Fig. 7). The onion furnishes us with a very familiar example.

Tubers or tubercles are expansions of underground stems, usually containing much fecular or starchy matter, and studded with eyes or buds. The potato and the dahlia (Fig. 8) furnish us with very familiar examples of a tuber.

The Stem may be either annual, biennial, or perennial. It is termed annual when it becomes developed in the spring and dies before the winter, as, for instance, is the case with wheat; biennial, when it lives two years; of this kind is the carrot, which during the first year only produces leaves, and having lived two years flowers and dies. Perennial stems are those which live many years, as is the case with trees in general. As regards their hardness, trunks or stems are usually divided into herbaceous (Latin, herba, grass), subligneous, and ligneous (Latin, lignum, wood). Herbaceous stems are those in which woody fibre is almost altogether absent, and which are therefore soft and juicy; of this kind is the stem of parsley, hemlock, etc. Subligneous stems are those in which woody fibre, although present, does not exist in the smaller shoots; of this kind are sage and rue, the bases of the stems of which are hard and woody, and therefore continue for many years, whereas the

4. STOLONIFEROUS ROOT OF

THE STRAWBERRY.

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Sometimes the root is said to be "stoloniferous," that is to example, are rose-trees.

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LASINN FRENCH —IV.

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1-FRENCH TRÒNUNCIATION (continued). T. VAXT A chrag de mY POWELS (2%tane 1) Pauling de chè i'learntor of the sound and use enssintag ust i anmmaand the following extract ali nini Speaking of the unaccented zue haud acidwests express themanlase the proper utterance of the A pronunciation of the swing and the dx the low-bred and ignorant. A wavelet Wood and sometimes not; panned philodigy for foreigners, who, always dotore they are able to follow a * and are inclined to believe that the any other people. The truth is, teng taom in general, do not speak faster 55 in conversation, and in familiar reading, and cas often as they can do it, and thus kutonoo than does a foreigner, who gives to every unaccented e he meets with. ce, ani the phrase je n'ai pas regu tout le panounced by a foreigner and a Frenchman cm-to-nan-ce—je në pa re-ṛu tou le vé-te-mea; 4 wedi bead Fronchman will pronounce, cont-nans—iné , sounding in the first word two syllables katha athars would sound four; and in the sentence to, 44 syllables, where the others would sound ten."

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and custom of clipping or shortening worls as mach ildu, in ordinary reading and common conversation, is Hluteated in the following sentence, namely:

"aand vous serez le mime, vous me trouverez le míme." This acutence contains thirteen syllables in prose, namely: Crouse-res-le-même-vous-me-trou-ve-rez-le-même. In post, would have two syllables. However, in familiar reading ned conversation, it is pronounced in eight syllables only, riz :— ford cou-seel-mêm-voum-trouv-rel-mêm The suppression of se is precisely the reason why foreigners imagine that the Picach speak so very quickly.

37. B, e, MUTE OR UNACCENTED-Name, wh; som like ne sound of the letter m in the English wordt on like the d of the last syllable er in the words over and teater, when poken quickly.

The e mute or unaccented "is a mere emission of the voice without any distinct sound. It either sunneeds a consonant by the articulation of which it becomes sensible, or comes after a yowl, of which it may be considered the prolongation."

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Que like buh

That is, like the sound of the last syllable of the English word baker, pronounced rather carelessly.

Take, if you please, another illustration. viz: the sound of u sound of the French word ne. This will give the correct sound in the English word aut, as explained above, in illustrating the of e mute or unsccented

The sound of e mute or unaccented resembles the sound of the these two words, viz-the rim. Apply the sound of this e, thus letter e of the word the, which is heard in pronouncing quickly Pronounced, to the e in the following words, viz. :-ce, de, je, me, ne, se, te, que, etc.

sound of the English a pronounced naturally. Let the organs Or lastly, the sound of e mute or unaccented is based upon the tion, whilst the lips are protruded as if to pout or whistle. Then, within the mouth maintain as nearly as possible the same posiwhilst the mouth is in this position, endeavour to pronounce the English again; this, in a majority of cases, will give the this last-mentioned plan aloud, and the car will soon detect the correct sound of e mate or unaccented. Practise frequently on rebusness or correctness of the sound. Most pupils find it more or less difficult to acquire this sound; but perseverance

It is confessedly difficult to illustrate the sound of this vowel } y the aid of Eng.sh letters, yet it is worthy an honest attempt it may be acquired from a teacher, by glàm quinton It is a learners are not good imitators! If it can be law, in de time, overcome every obstacie. take 1 by analogous English sounds, it seems quite reasonable In suppose that strongh this process many more stad ats would wederstand and aprire it that if they were left may to the diabtful polary of imitation Let us try.

bifore the pay attempts to prove the French works used for examples let him obaerre most carefully the sound of the last syilable of the folowing words, when attered as they usually are in common conversation namely:—

Mother, Broth-er, Nov-er, Sis-ter, Wa-ter. Take any one of the abors English works, vir: the first, the Pronounce it naturally and aloud with a fall voice, rycial times, until the common sound of the last sulable in Cuticular is familiar to the ear. Take each of those words, and Cms practise, by pronouncing aloud carefully, but naturally, weaving at the same time the sound of the last sylialle. Now, by what combination of letters would you represent Lud eo mir By me, as in the first syllable of the English word cu merry me by uk 2 Manifestly the latter. Below are a few, Farch words, which you will now prooood to pronounce aloud, to the yowel & in on h example the last syilabio of tv Peorang mah of the following Fronch word. whly and plantly, we if a prelamation mark wers plac d Jam ly.

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In illustrating the sound of e mute or unaccented, the follow

ing signs will be used, sometimes one, again the other, viz. :—uh,
and the apostrophe, thus:-
Je by shuh, or by j.

Se by suh, or by s'.

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3. When it is deemol necessary to express in French the difference existing in English between the words this and that, the adverba ci and ¡ì may be placed after the nouns (§ 20 (2)). Jo n'ai pas ce parasol-ci, j'ai ce I are not this parasol, I have that parasol là, panasol.

4. The demonstrative pronouns, celui, m., celle, f., this or that, are used to represent nɔans, but are never joined with them like sotives $83, § 37 (12

J'ai mon parapluie et celui de votre I have my umbrella and your brother's
frere,
-i.e., that of your brother.
Tous avez ma roba et celle de ma
sœur,

You have my dress and my sister's
-i.e., that of my sister.

5. The pronouns celui, celle, with the addition of the words ci and là, are used in the sense of this one, that one, the latter, the former [§ 37 (4)]. They agree in gender with the word which they represent.

Vous avez celui-ci, mais vous n'avez pas celui-là,

You have this one (the latter), but
you have not that one (the former).

28. The stranger has no poultry, but he has money. 29. Your
brother is hungry and thirsty, afraid and sleepy. 30. Is any ono
ashamed? 31. No, Sir, nobody is ashamed.
32. Is your
brother right or wrong? 33. My brother is right, and yours is
wrong. 34. Your sister has neither her satin hat nor her
velvet hat. 35. Has the baker the mahogany chest of drawers?
36. He has it not, he has the mahogany sofa. 37. Has the
tinman my plato ? 38. He has not your plate, he has mine.
SECTION IX.-THE PLURAL OF NOUNS (§ 8).
1. The plural in French is generally formed, as in English, by

6. The pronouns ceci and cela are used absolutely, that is, the addition of s to the singular.
without a noun, in pointing out objects.
Nous n'avons pas ceci, nous avons cela,
Ceci ou ceka,

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We have not this, we have that.
This or that.

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VOCABULARY.
Encrier, m., inkstand.
Fromage, m., chesse.
Jardinier, m., gardener.
Lait, m., milk.
Lettre, f., letter.
Malle, f., trunk.

Parasol, m., parasol.
EXERCISE 13.

Parapluie, m., um-
brella.

Plomb, m., lead.
Plus, no longer.
Poulet, m., chicken.
Salière, f., salt stand.
Volaille, f., poultry.

1. Votre frère a-t-il son encrier d'argent? 2. Il ne l'a plus, il a un encrier de plomb. 3. Avons-nous la lettre de l'étranger? 4. Oai, Monsieur, nous avons celle de l'étranger. (R. 4.) 5. Votre soeur n'a pas son ardoise, mais elle a son chapeau de satin. 6. Le menuisier a-t-il votre bois ou le sien? 7. Il n'a ni le mien ni le sien, il a celui du jardinier. 8. Avez-vous mon bon parapluie de soie? 9. J'ai votre parapluie de soie et votre parasol de satin. 10. Avez-vous ma bouteille? 11. Je n'ai pas votre bouteille, j'ai la malle de votre sœur. 12. Le domestique a-t-il cette salière? 13. Il n'a pas cette salière-ci, il a celle-là. 14. Avez-vous le bon ou le mauvais poulet? 15. Je n'ai ni celui-ci ni celui-là. 16. Quel poulet avez-vous ? 17. J'ai celui du euisinier. 18. Le boulanger a-t-il de la volaille? 19. Le boulanger n'a pas de volaille, il a du lait. (Sect. V. 5.) 20. Avez-vous votre fromage ou le mien? 21. Je n'ai ni le vôtre ni le mien, j'ai celui du matelot. 22. Quelqu'un a-t-il faim? 23. Personne n'a faim. 24. Avez-vous quelque chose? 25. Non, Monsieur, je n'ai rien. 26. Avez-vous le sofa d'acajou de mon menuisier ? 27. Non, Monsieur, je ne l'ai pas. 28. J'ai son joli miroir et son bon crayon.

EXERCISE 14.

A man, a woman.
Two men, two women.

Un homme, une femme,
Deux hommes, deux femmes,
The form le of the article becomes plural by the addition of s,
and may be placed before plural nouns of either gender.
The men, the women.

Les hommes, les femmes,

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4. 3rd EXCEPTION.-The following nouns ending in ou tako x for the plural:-bijon, jewel; caillou, pebble; chou, cabbage; genou, knee; hibou, owl; joujou, plaything.

Les bijoux, les cailloux, les choux, The jewels, the pebbles, the cabbages. Les hiboux, les genoux, les joujoux. The owls, the knees, the playthings. 5. 4th EXCEPTION.-The following nouns ending in ail change that termination into aux for the plural:-bail, lease; corail, coral; émail, enamel; soupirail, air-hole; sous-bail, under-lease; travail, labour.

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tor, form their plural irregularly.
7. 6th EXCEPTION.-Ciel, heaven; oil, eye; and aïeul, ances-
Les cieux, les yeux, les aïeux,

The heavens, the eyes, the ancestors.
For further rules see § 8, § 9, and § 10, of Part II.
RÉSUMÉ OF EXAMPLES.

(Sect. IV. 1.) Les Anglais ont-ils les chevaux du Have

1. Has your brother that lady's umbrella? 2. My brother has that lady's umbrella? 3. Have you this parasol or that one? 4. I have neither this (one) nor that (one). 5. Have you the stranger's gold watch? 6. No, Sir, I have the baker's. 7. Who has my slate? 8. I have your slate and your brother's. 9. Has the cook a silver salt stand? 10. The cook has a silver salt stand, and a silver dish. 11. Has the cook this poultry or that? 12. He has neither this nor that. 13. Has he this bread or that? 14. He has neither this nor that, he has the baker's good bread. 15. Have you my cotton parasol ? 16. I have not your cotton parasol, I have your silk parasol. 17. Has the gardener a leather trunk? 18. The gardener has a leather trunk. 19. Who has my good cheese? 20. Nobody has your cheese, but some one has your brother's. 21. Have you mine or his? 22. I have neither yours nor his, I have the stranger's. 23. Has the cook this bottle or that broom? 24. He has this bottle. 25. Have you a lead inkstand? 26. No, Sir, I have a china inkstand. 27. Has the stranger poultry?

général ?

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the English the general's
horses?
The generals have not the jewels.
Have the children the pebbles?
The child's eyes.

The pictures of that church.
Have you the birds of that wood?
Have you my sister's silver inkstanda?

I have the gold and silver jewels of
the foreigner.
Have not the kings the marble
palaces?

VOCABULARY.

! Général, m., general.
Gilet, m., waistcoat.
Grand, adj., large, great.
Jardin, m., garden.
Joujou, m., plaything.
Légume, m., vegetable.
Marchand, m., merchant.
Maréchal, m., blacksmith.
Mauvais, e, bad.

EXERCISE 15.

Meunier, m., miller.
Morceau, m., piece.
Oiseau, m., bird.
Paire, f., pair.
Petit, adj., small.
Poivre, m., pepper.
Qu', que, what.
Rien, nothing.

1. Avez-vous les marteaux du charpentier ? 2. Nous avons les marteaux du maréchal. 3. Les maréchaux ont-ils doux marteaux de bois? 4. Ils ont deux marteaux de for. 5. Les généraux ont-ils les chapeaux de soie de l'enfant ? 6. Ils ont

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et les joujoux de l'enfant. 7. Les enfants ont-ils le votre bois? 8. Ils n'ont pas les oiseaux de mon ils ont les chevaux de mon général. 9. Le maréchal sted une paire de bas de laine? 10. Le maréchal a deux paires 4: tram de laine. 11. Monsieur, n'avez-vous pas froid? 12. NOL, Monsieur, j'ai chaud. 13. Avez-vous du café ou du Chocolat 14. Je n'ai ni café ni chocolat. 15. N'avez-vous pas les choux de mon grand jardin? 16. J'ai les légumes de votre petit jardin. 17. Votre fils, qu'a-t-il? 18. Mon fils n'a Liik 19. Avez-vous deux morceaux de pain? 20. Le meunier a un morceau de pain et deux barils de farine. 21. L'épicier a-t-il du café, du thé, du chocolat, et du poivre? 22. Il a du thé et du café, et le chocolat et le poivre de votre marchand. 23. Qui a de l'argent? 24. Je n'ai pas d'argent, mais j'ai du papier. 25. Avez-vous de bon papier ? 26. J'ai de mauvais papier.

EXERCISE 16. 1. Have you my brother's horses?

ut

h

brother's horses, I have your cousin's hats. 3. Have the blacksmiths good iron? 4. The blacksmith has two pieces of iron. 5. Have you two pairs of stockings? 6. I have one pair of stockings and two pairs of gloves. 7. Has your sister the gold jewels? 8. My sister has the gold jewels and the paper playthings. 9. Have you the cabbages in your garden? 10. We have two cabbages in our garden. 11. Have you the silk hats? 12. The generals have the silk hats. 13. Have you coffee or sugar? 14. We have neither coffee nor sugar. 15. Are your brothers ashamed? 16. My brothers are neither ashamed nor afraid. 17. Who has two barrels of flour? 18. The miller has two barrels of flour. 19. Have the birds bread? 20. The birds have no bread. 21. Has the merchant tea, chocolate,

| sugar, and pepper? 22. He has sugar and pepper, but he has neither tea nor chocolate. 23. What has your sister? 24. She has nothing. 25. What is the matter with your brother? 26. Nothing is the matter with him. 27. Is he not cold? 28. He 2. I have not your is not cold, he is warm.

COPY-SLIP NO. 8.-COMBINATION OF THE LETTERS u, t.

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As it is impossible for any one who is attempting to teach himself the art of Penmanship to write well without practice, we now give three more combinations of pairs of the four letters that the reader has already learned to make, before passing on to other letters of the alphabet in writing, for whose formation strokes are required that differ in shape and character from the first elementary stroke that forms the basis of the letters i, u, t, 1. At this stage of our Lessons in Penmanship, it may not be out of place to say something about the kind of handwriting that the students of this part of the POPULAR EDUCATOR are practising, and to give those who may feel disposed to rule paper for themselves, in imitation of our copy-slips, a few brief instructions that will enable them to do so.

First, with regard to the kind or description of handwriting that is set before our readers in our present series of elementary copy-slips, it should be said that it is called Large Text, and that it is the largest, plainest, and boldest of the four kinds of handwriting usually practised by learners. The three hands that yet remain to be named are termed Text Hand, Round Hand or H Small or Running Hand. Of these, between lines half an inch apart; -third of an inch apart; Round ty-fourths of an inch apart, or

Large T

Text
Ha

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rather less than one-fourth of an inch; and Small Hand, on
single lines, and sometimes between double lines three-
thirty-seconds of an inch apart, or rather less than one-eighth
of an inch. For those who may not have a graduated scale of
inches, we append a printed scale, show-
ing the respective widths of the four
kinds of writing that have been named.

Large Text inch.

Text Hand inch.

Round Hand inch.
Small Hand inch.

Now, to show our readers how to rule a page wherein to copy any of the examples that have been or will be given, let us suppose that the learner wishes to prepare paper for copying t 1, as in Copyslip No. 10. First rule two lines, one on either side of the page, close to the margin, from top to bottom, taking care that they are parallel to each other that is to say, at equal distances from each other all the way down. Then rule a line across the top of the page, also close to the margin and at right angles to the parallel lines at the sides of the paper, or square with them," as a joiner would say, and, commencing from this line, set off with compasses along the side lines distances equal to ed, da, ac, cb, in order, as in Copy-slip No. 10, and repeat this as often as the length of the paper will allow, taking care to leave a space of one-fourth of an inch between the last of each set of five lines and the first of the next which

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