Εικόνες σελίδας
PDF
Ηλεκτρ. έκδοση

of these materials architectural forms, without going through that initiatory process which characterises the origin of all human inventions. Yet the plains of Chaldea soon exhibited constructions which had a great influence over primitive art in the East, and formed the basis of a system which extended its branches even to the West. The want of stones in Mesopotamia soon taught the inhabitants to mould bricks, and their most ancient temple mentioned in the Bible, called the Tower of Babel, was an immense pyramid built of bricks piled on one another, and forming, according to report, eight storeys or rows, gradually receding from each other. At the top of this building they sacrificed to Baal; at a later period the Chaldean kings placed his statue there, when their artists had made some progress in the art of sculpture. It is probable that this pyramidal-formed temple owed its origin to their remembrance of the practices of those Caucasian countries whence the Shemitic tribes derived

is evident that these first regular constructions were thus generally established; and the greater part of the primitive world adopted them, with the exception of those countries where great political events interrupted the first movements of civilisation, and suspended the march of the arts; with the exception also of those whose inhabitants, less endowed by nature, necessarily remained in the rear of civilisation, and only received a movement of this kind from their neighbours, or from an invasion of some people more advanced in civilisation. The first builders worthy of the name from their ability to mould bricks, and hew stones to raise their gigantic monuments, were compelled to follow the road in which they were placed. The want of experience, the absence of instruments and machines, prevented them from raising, at first, great edifices with vertical façades or fronts, such as they were enabled to construct at a later period. To form large foundations, and to raise above them

[graphic][subsumed][merged small]

their origin. Herodotus gave a glimpse of the truth, when he said that the Scythians made their temples or altars with a great quantity of wood heaped in the form of a pyramid. However the case may be, this very simple form, which appears to have come naturally to the minds of those men who were the first to raise large constructions, spread itself over all Asia; the ancient pagodas of India are built in this form; the most ancient monuments of Lower Egypt and Ethiopia, where the Shemitic tribes settled in Africa, are all of them pyramids. In Asia whole cities-Ecbatana, for example-presented numerous concentric enclosures rising one above another in such a way as to exhibit the pyramidal form. The celebrated Hanging Gardens of Babylon, formed of numerous terraces, one above another, had also the same configuration. In short, this must be conored as the progress of architecture, when we see that the ancient religious edifices of the Mexicans are immense idal buildings, simple at first like those of Chaldea, and ver and Upper Egypt; but at a later period ornamented sculpture like the pagodas of India. Ancient public lings were also found in Mexico of a pyramidal form. It

materials with gradual and numerous recesses such as would prevent the fall of the upper parts of the building, was the first law of construction and of statics to which they were obliged to submit. This is so true that, after having made their great steps in the art of building, and become able builders, the Indians, the Chaldeans, the Ethiopians, and the Egyptians, still continued in the path of which the pyramid was the starting. point, by raising their edifices in such a manner as to give to their façades a great inclination in order to obtain greater sta bility; a wise system, which was adopted by the Etruscans when they left Asia, where these principles were long established. They were also spread over a part of Italy, and traces of them are found at Norchia. The same ideas exerted their influence over the early edifices of the Greeks, and they are found in a modified form among the finest specimens of their later archi tecture. They are recognised, for instance, in the remains of the Parthenon, or Temple of Minerva at Athens, where the inclination of the jambs of the doors and windows still exists. Mexico also bears witness to this, as may be seen in our remarks on the first regular constructions of that country.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.—I.

INTRODUCTION-TERMS EMPLOYED IN CLASSIFICATION.

THE simple instructions given by Linnè to all succeeding naturalists were "Observe and compare." This Swedish naturalist, whom we call Linnæus, assiduously followed his own maxim, and became one of the greatest masters of the description, and the largest contributor to the science of the classification, of living things whom the world has known.

All the higher animals are free, locomotive, well-defined individuals. Each has within the circumscribed limits of its body, whether that body be of moderate dimensions or extremely minute, every organ which is requisite to self-existence and reproduction. The actions which the body has to perform in order to carry on that orderly system of constructive change which is always associated with life, are very numerous. To perform these actions, many complex organs are required; hence an animal is a very compact piece of machinery, no part of which can be dispensed with without crippling the whole. As in a large factory every band, and wheel, and rod, from the great piston to the little bobbin, has its separate office, the adaptations to which have required thought and contrivance; so there is no part of any animal which is not fitted to carry out some necessary function.

The outward form of animals is often beautiful, and the study of it instructive; but it is obvious that we cannot expect to know anything of the animal, considered as a machine, until we have searched it throughout by cutting down to every internal organ, and examining all the peculiarities of each. If we neglect to do this, it is not only probable, but certain, that in the unexamined part we shall leave some secret of its life, some admirable contrivance, some wonderful adaptation, unnoticed. This leads us to the conclusion that in order to acquire a knowledge of living things we must use the knife. The microscope, the injecting syringe, and all the appliances of modern science, may be used, but the knife or scalpel is indispensable, and the use of it has given a name to the science. The word anatomy is derived from the Greek ava (an'-a), through, and Toμn (tom'-e), a cutting. In following the Linnæan direction to observe in this realm of Nature, it was natural that the only means of observation should give its name to the science which sprung out of the investigation. At first, however, the study was directed upon one species only. If in more senses than one the proper study of mankind is man, it was natural that at first the human frame should have monopolised all the attention of scientific dissectors. Hence the word anatomy was applied to the study of the structure of the human species. As science advanced, other animals were examined in the same way, and the new study, as it always suggested a comparison with the results of the old, was called comparative anatomy.

Comparative anatomy is a study of all the parts of all the different kinds of bodies which are found in the animal kingdom, so far as structure is concerned. Strictly speaking, it treats of the dead animal alone. It describes the machine when the motive power has ceased to act. Nevertheless, in examining the structure of a species it is quite impossible, and very undesirable, to exclude the idea of the function which the several parts have to perform when animated with life. Thus the twin studies of anatomy (or the structure of living beings) and of physiology are indissolubly connected, though distinct from one another. The mechanist has to do with the several parts of the engine while they are at rest, but every fitting is constructed with reference to motion. He cannot exclude the idea of motion while he is constructing his machine. He asks himself at every stage, Will it go? will it do its work well? The works of God cannot be constructed by man, and their simplest contrivances can scarcely be imitated; but man can examine and analyse them, and as he does so he will be continually asking himself, How does this structure act in the living animal ? and exclaim, as knowledge dawns upon him, How admirably is this organ constructed to do its work!

The words comparative anatomy, however, suggest another truth-they suggest that living beings may be compared with one another. Every animal might be made a study by itself, as man has been. The fact that man's frame has been the subject of thousands of books, and the object of millions of investigations, and still affords unsolved problems, shows that the study of each species is almost unlimited. On comparing the bodies

VOL. II.

of different animals, it is found that they are not totally dissimilar structures. The first thing which strikes the student is that a very large number of animals are constructed upon the same ground-plan-they differ only in the details of their structure. Now, the details of structure are often most apparent on the exterior, while the essential plan lies deeper. The anatomist (i.e., dissector) will often reveal a similarity between two animals which the zoologist would not suspect. If we take two animals so utterly dissimilar in size, outward form, and habits as the bat and the pig, and dissect them, we shall find that in the main they are alike. Not only is there a bony axis composed of many joints in the interior of the body of each, which supports the animal, gives origin to the muscles, and protects the nervous matter, but with few and slight exceptions we find bone for bone, muscle for muscle, nerve for nerve, in comparing each point of the internal structure of the two animals. Not only is the fore-limb of a dog built upon the same plan as the arm of a man, but it is essentially more like it than it is to the hind-limb of the same animal.

The similarity of structure which is found throughout a very large number of animals is the first fact which strikes every candid student of comparative anatomy. It is fortunate for the study that this is the case. If every animal were built up on an independent plan, no one could hope to gain a comprehensive view of the structure of the animal kingdom; nor would the study be so interesting, for the human mind delights in similitudes and generalisations; moreover, on this likeness of structure all classification of animals depends.

In pursuing his study, the comparative anatomist finds that while a very large number of animals are constructed after the same pattern, this pattern does not run through the structure of all animals. He finds another multitude of animals which are built upon a plan common to them all, but this plan is quite different from that which characterises the first group. When he has determined the number of these large groups, he finds further that each species in one of these groups is not in the same degree like or unlike every other of the same group. If a, b, c, etc., represent a number of animals in a large group, he finds that o is not as like to a as b is to a, so that he can arrange them in something like order, placing one next to that to which it is most like, so as to show that though z be to a great extent unlike a, yet it is connected with it by the intermediate links. Our student also will find that each species is not in the same degree like or unlike even its next door neighbour, as every other two next door neighbours are. In other words, there are gaps in the series, and very useful these gaps are, because they enable us to split up the tens of thousands of species which belong to each group into natural sections. The great groups themselves are probably only caused by very wide gaps; and these groups are subdivided by less marked gaps into smaller groups, and so on. The reader must always remem ber that the vast scheme of animated nature is far more complex than any of these poor illustrations express, or else he will b misled by that which was intended to explain it. Perhaps the best illustration of the relations of animals to one another is that of the richly-branched head of a large tree. In summer, when the leafy covering presents an even surface to the eye, the con nection of the ultimate twigs is not apparent; but in winter we can see that a number of twigs spring from one little bough, a number of these boughs spring from a branch, and a number of these branches may be traced down to where they diverge from the giant fork.

It follows from this arrangement that a great many things may be said about the structure of each animal in one group which will be true of all in that group. A great many more facts may be stated of the animals of a smaller group, and so on. Now, these statements are the results of comparative anatomy, and the only true grounds of classification.

The comparative anatomist has a most difficult task before him, and the collected wisdom of all comparative anatomists has not saved them from many blunders; but every student of the science has this satisfaction: he knows that the classification which is being worked out is not an imaginary but a real one. The classification which unites animals into groups within groups, grounded on their likeness more or less to one another, indicates a real and natural relationship in those which are placed together. Whether this classification indicates a material blood-relationship, or reveals the plan of the Almighty

28

Creator, or both of these combined, no comparative anatomist doubts that there is something absolute in nature which corresponds more or less closely to it, as we are more or less acute in our observations.

Of course, since we can say so many things which are true of a whole group of animals, but which cannot be said of any animal not belonging to that group, this greatly simplifies the whole study of comparative anatomy. Thus we can frame definitions of groups, but there is this difficulty in this treatment of the subject: we are not acquainted with all animals, and it not unfrequently happens that when we have made our definitions of two groups, apparently perfectly distinct, some strange creature from some outlandish country is brought home which

has some of the characters given in one definition and some that

are given in the other. Then the definitions have to be re-framed so as to include the new species on one side or other of the line of demarcation, or a new group made for its accommodation. To avoid this result, it is perhaps better to take some one animal of a group which has all the essential features of its group well developed, and describe it as a type, laying stress on the description of those peculiarities which are the most widely possessed by the members of the group. As a matter of fact, it will be found that an immense number of forms cluster closely around such a typical species, while those forms which lie between two such types will be few and rare. This plan of describing types we shall endeavour to follow; but since the human mind longs for definitions because they are definite, we can hardly escape sometimes giving them.

The animal kingdom is the realm we have to explore. How is it bounded? The question involves us in the very difficulty to which we have just referred. The animal kingdom is cut off from the mineral kingdom by the fact that while a mineral remains unchanged unless acted on by external forces, an animal is compelled to pass through a series of changes. But how shall we distinguish an animal from a vegetable? The answer which would naturally suggest itself is: An animal moves and feels. Yes; but what is meant by movement and feeling? Many animals are fixed, and grow up from the rocks beneath the

ocean as plants do, and some plants possess not only motion

but locomotion. We cannot interrogate the lowest animals as to whether they feel, and if we are guided by appearances, the sensitive mimosa feels. The fact is, we cannot define, for whatever the definition, some troublesome species of plant or animal obtrudes itself to disturb our distinction. We can, however, affirm many things about plants and animals which are generally true of the one kingdom and exclusive of the other. Thus, animals cannot exist on mineral substances alone, but most plants both can and do do so. Animals generally have an internal cavity to lodge their food while it is being dissolved and absorbed; plants have no stomach. Most animals have a nervous system, that is, a material by which the whole organism is connected into a sentient individual, and which conveys volition through the frame; no plant has a nervous system. These contrasts between a typical animal and a typical plant must satisfy the reader. The lower groups in both kingdoms present species which it may be difficult to assign to their respective spheres; but by keeping in mind the typical or ideal plant or animal we shall usually be able to determine the position of every form which presents itself.

In the next lesson we shall give an outline of the classification of the animal kingdom, only giving its main features, and not descending into the minor divisions, and then take a type of each class, and describe it so as to bring out its peculiar characteristics. The student will find it a great and material help, as he proceeds in his study of this subject, if he does not content himself merely with committing to memory the written description of various characteristics in the construction of animals, but refers to the particular animal selected as an illustration, and so fixes the truth in his mind by the aid of actual experience. With a view to enable the reader thus to verify the statements for himself, and to impress them intelligently on his memory, the types chosen will, so far as it is possible, be ordinary and familiar animals in each department.

It will prevent confusion in the mind of the reader not only of the following lessons, but of all books on this subject, if he have a clear idea of the terms applied to the different grades of e groups in classification. We give the principal names oyed in the order of their importance, reading from left to

[blocks in formation]

A species is the lowest grade with which we shall have any. thing to do, and may be defined to be that assemblage of animals which are alike in every essential feature of structure, and any two of which (male and female) are capable of reproducing their own kind in perpetuity.

the genus followed by that of the species: thus science names When we wish to name a species we use two names, that of the horse Equus caballus.

A genus is an assemblage of species; a family a number of all the grades, but his definitions are so vague as to be almost genera, and so on. Professor Agassiz has endeavoured to define worthless. We will not attempt to give definitions, because all are open to objections, as indeed that which we have given to define a species is. What is essential to the student is to know that they rank one above the other, and are not used indiscriminately. He will soon see how they are applied as he gets to know more of the animal kingdom.

not only the horse, but the ass, zebra, etc.; the family Soli To carry out the example given :-The genus Equus includes dungula includes all animals which have a single consolidated toe to each foot; the order Pachydermata includes not only the horse family, but also the elephant family, the rhinoceros family, the hog family, etc.; the class Mammalia includes not only the Pachydermata, but the Carnivora, Rodentia, etc., i.e., all brutes; birds, reptiles, and fish. and the sub-kingdom Vertebrata includes not only brutes, but

Other intermediate grades are often used, but those we have is cleared for our next lesson on general classification.

given are the best established. With this explanation our way

LESSONS IN LATIN.-XIV.

ADVERBS.

IN English, adverbs are formed from adjectives by the addition of ly, thus swift, swift-ly. Similar is the manner in which the Romans formed their adverbs. The ordinary terminations of the Latin adverbs are e and ter; ter sometimes stands as iter. To form an adverb, find the stem and add the terminations. Adverbs formed from adjectives or participles of the second declension end in e. Adverbs formed from adjectives or participles of the third declension, in ens and ans, end in ter. Adverbs formed from the other adjectives of the third declension, end in iter.

You ought now to have no difficulty to know which are adjectives of the second, and which adjectives of the third declension. But for your assistance I interpose a few remarks. Adjectives follow the first, the second, and the third declension of nouns. Adjectives which have the nominative singular in a, and genitive singular in æ, follow the first declension. Adjectives which have the nominative singular in us or um, and genitive singular in, follow the second declension. Adjectives which have the nominative singular in is, etc., and genitive singular in is, follow the third declension. There are no adjectives of the fourth or fifth declension. I add instances of

ADVERBS FORMED FROM ADJECTIVES.
from clarus, 2, clear.
liber, 2, free.

Clare, clearly, brightly;
Liběre, freely;
Pulchre, beautifully;
Prudenter, prudently;
Amanter, lovingly;
Fortiter, bravely;

Audaciter, daringly;

pulcher (pulchri), 2, beautiful. prudens (prudent), 3, prudent, amans (amant), 3, loving.

fortis (fort), 3, brave.

audax (audac), 3, daring.

Adverbs, like adjectives, undergo comparison. Thus, clare, clearly, positive; clarius, more clearly, comparative; clarissime, most clearly, superlative. Properly the comparative adverb is the neuter gender singular number of the comparative adjective:

thus, clarus, clarior, clarius. The superlative is formed by the
conversion of us of the adjective into e: thus, optimus, best;
Instances follow of
optime, in the best manner.

ADVERBS IN THE THREE DEGREES OF COMPARISON.

Positive.

Læste, joyfully;

Docte, learnedly;

Leviter, lightly;

Feliciter, happily;
Magnifice, splendidly;

Similiter, similarly ;

Comparative. lætius, more jo fully ; doctius, more learnedly; levius, more lightly; felicius, more happily; magnificentius, more

splendidly;

Superlative. lætissime, most joyfully. doctissime, most learnedly levissime, most lightly. felicissime, most happily. magnificentissime, most splendidly.

similius, more similarly; simillime,most similarly.

These adverbs are irregular :

Positive.

Comparative.

Bene, well;
Male, ill;

melius, better;

pejus, worse;

[blocks in formation]

Superlative.

optime, best.
pessime, worst.

plurimum, most.

maxime, very greatly.

[merged small][merged small][merged small][ocr errors][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small]

Ab. nobis (a nobis), by us; vobis (a vobis),by you; se (a se) by them, themselves.

Sui, sibi, etc., you see are the same in the plural as in the singular. In pronouns, the vocative, when it exists, is generally the same as the nominative. The preposition cum, with (governing the ablative), is put after me, te, etc., and joined to them; as, mecum, with me; tecum, with thee: so, secum, with them, or with themselves; nobiscum, with us; vobiscum, with you.

In order to give emphasis, met is subjoined to all these forms, except tu, and the genitive plural of ego and tu; thus, egomet, temet, sibimet, nosmet, vosmet: tu takes te, as tute; se, for the sake of force, is doubled, as sese.

Nostri and vestri differ in use from nostrum and vestrum. Nostri is simply of us; nostrum is ours; nostrum denotes a

Administro, 1, I ad- Habito, 1, I dwell, re- Que (stands after the class, and is used with partitives, that is, words which signify

[blocks in formation]

1. Milites fortiter pugnant. 2. Pugnantne fortiter milites? Nonne fortiter pugnant milites? 4. Romani fortius quam hostes pugnant. 5. De Græcia magis atque magis cogito. 6. Nonne de patre tuo multum cogitas ? 7. Literas magis atque magis quotidie expec tamus. 8. Cupidissime adventum matris expectas. 9. Rus patrem plus plusque in dies delectat. 10. Bene domum ædificas. 11. Edificatne domum optime? 12. Literæ sunt pessime scriptæ. 13. Verba tua male sonant. 14. Servi de domino pessime cogitant. 15. Puellæ patientius quam pueri laborant. 16. Occultissima pericula difficillime vitantur. 17. Difficile est Græcos superare. 18. Fortissime dimicant Greci. 19. Seditio facilius quam bellum sedatur. 20. Civitas optime 21. Audaciter negat. 22. Urbem feliciter habitant

administratur.

cires.

EXERCISE 48.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

1. Is the war easily composed? 2. The war is composed with very great difficulty (superlative from difficilis). 3. He fights bravely. 4. They fight more bravely. 5. The Greeks fight very bravely. 6. Greatly do you hope for (expecto) the coming of spring. 7. The coming of spring is most eagerly hoped for by all boys and girls. 8. They hope for your letter daily more and more. 9. Bad words sound badly. 10. The soldiers contend more and more. 11. Hidden things are not easily avoided. 12. Mothers labour more patiently than daughters. 13. The sedition is happily composed (that is, being put down). 14. He writes a letter beautifully. 15. The Romans fight more bravely than the Greeks. 16. The country delights my mind very much. 17. Is thy mind delighted much by the country? 18. Very much do I think of my home (domus), my brothers, and my sisters. 19. The state is administered very ill by the Romans.

PRONOUNS.

The personal pronouns ego, I, and tu, thou, are declined according to the ensuing table. Strictly, the Latins have no personal pronoun of the third person, he; that is, no pronoun which exactly corresponds to our he. Ille, which is often given as such, signifies that person, and sui (no nominative) is a reflective pronoun; that is, it has a reference to a subject preceding. As, however, parts of sui agree with parts of the personal pronouns, it is inserted in this table of

[blocks in formation]
[blocks in formation]

EXERCISE 49.-LATIN-ENGLISH. 1. Ego canto. 2. Tu clamas, 3. Amicus vocat. 4. Nos narrămus. 5. Vos saltatis. 6. Fratres laborant. 7. Ego fleo. 8. Tu rides. 9. Frater dolet. 10. Nos præceptores docemus; vos discipuli discitis. 11. Ego ludo. 12. Tu discis. 13. Soror acu pingit. 14. Nos scribimus. 15. Vos legitis. 16. Fratres pingunt. 17. Ego salio. 18. Tu feris. 19. Puer dormit. 20. Nos magistri erudimus vos, O discipuli. 21. Vos, boni discipuli, attente auditis præcepta nostra. 22. Virtutes inter se æquales sunt. 23. Imperare sibi (one's self) maximum est imperium. 24. Iratus non est apud se. 25. Tractatio literarum nobis est salutaris. 26. Veritas semper mihi grata est.

EXERCISE 50.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

1. I relate. 2. Thou dancest. 3. (Our) brother labours. 4. We sing. 5. You labour. 6. (Our) friends dance. 7. I, the teacher, teach; you, O scholars, learn. 8. We grieve. 9. Thou paintest. 10. The young men strike. 11. We instructors do not try to teach you, O angry boys! 12. Good scholars ought (debeo) to command themselves. 13. To command one's self is a virtue. 14. It is difficult for (Dat.) the angry man to command himself. 15. The angry are not masters of themselves (apud se). 16. Command is always pleasant to thee. 17. Is not command pleasant to us? 18. To thee, not to me, is truth pleasant. 19. Truth is salutary to thee, to me, to us, to all. VOCABULARY.

[blocks in formation]

Caput, -Itis, n., a head.
Cives, -is, m., a citizen

(E. R. city).

De (with Abl.), of, con-
cerning.

Discordo, 1, I disagree.
Expěto,3, I desire, strive
after.

I creep upon.
Par, paris, like (E. R.
pair, peer).
Parentes, -um, c., pa-
rents.

Per, prep. (with Acc.),
through.

Faveo,2, I am favourable Porto, 1, I carry (E. R.
to.

porter).

[blocks in formation]

EXERCISE 51.-LATIN-ENGLISH.

1. Obrepunt vitia nobis nomine (under the name) virtutum. 2. Nos favemus vobis, vos non favetis nobis. 3. Tu me amas, ego te amo. 4. Mihi mea vita, tibi tua cara est. 5. Virtus per se splendet semper.

6. Cantus nos delectat. 7. Parentes a nobis diliguntur. 8. O mi fili, nunquam mihi pares! 6. Frater me et te amat. 10. Egomet mihi sum proximus. 11. Tute tibi imperas bene. 12. Virtus propter sese colitur. 13. Suapte natura virtus expetitur. 14. Cives de suismet capitibus dimicant. 15. Sapiens omnia sua secum portat. 16. Nos vobiscum de patris reditu gaudemus. 17. Tu tecum pulchre pugnas. 18. Deus tecuma est. 19. Sæpe animus secum discordat. nobiscum acriter pugnant. 21. Oratio tua tecum pugnat.

EXERCISE 52.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

20. Hostes

1. I carry all mine (my things) with me. 2. Do wise men carry all their property (all theirs) with them? 3. Thou lovest me, I love thee. 4. Thy life is pleasant to me, my life is pleasant to thee. 5. Bad men always disagree with themselves. 6. The handling (pursuit) of letters is very pleasant to us. 7. Men love themselves. 8. Do women love themselves? 9. Bad men love themselves very badly. 10. Virtue is beautiful by (per) itself. 11. On account of thyself I love thee. 12. My native country is more pleasant to me than thiLe to thee. KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN LATIN, XII. AND (Vol. I., pp. 358, 388.) EXERCISE 39.-LATIN-ENGLISH.

XIII.

1. Hope is uncertain and doubtful. 2. The power of hope is great in the minds of men. 3. Is not the power of hope great in thy mind? 4. Boys easily indulge in vain hope. 5. We ought not to lose the hope of happier times in the miseries of life. 6. O hope, thou refreshest the minds of wretched men with a sweet solace! 7. By vain hope we are often deceived. 8. Human affairs are often uncertain and doubtful. 9. The condition of human affairs is doubtful. Thou oughtest to oppose virtue to adverse things; i.e., thou oughtest to withstand adversity by virtue. 11. A wise man does not dread adversity. 12. O human affairs, how often you deceive the minds of men! 13. The mind of a wise man is not beaten down by adversity. EXERCISE 40.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

10.

[blocks in formation]

7.

1. The faithfulness of friendship refreshes the mind in the wretchedness of life. 2. The examples of true friendship are rare. 3. To the fidelity of friends we owe (our) safety in adversity. 4. A true friend preserves his fidelity even in the miseries of life. 5. Fidelity prepares a port even for the wretched. 6. A safe port is prepared for me. An uncorrupted friend is rare in adversity. 8. He rests in the fidelity of (his) friends. 9. The coming of spring is sweet. 10. The day flies quickly away. 11. Fair days are rare in spring. 12. He calls together the soldiers into the city on (an) appointed day. 13. On a fixed day, my friends are called together into my house. 14. Sad are the days of the wretched.

EXERCISE 42.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

1. Veri amici fidem servant in ærumnis vitæ. 2. Fides amicitiæ non est spes vana. 3. Rarumue exemplum est fides incorrupti amici? 4. In adversis rebus portum debemus veris amicis. 5. Vera amicitiæ solatium amicos convocat. 6. Cito avolant sereni dies. 7. Certā die convocant duces agmina. 8. Constituta die milites a rege convocantur. 9. Cupide adventum veris expecto. 10. In vere rara est tristis dies. EXERCISE 43.-LATIN-ENGLISH.

1. I have a faithful and dear friend. 2. Thy slave is unfaithful. 3. The earth is round. 4. True friendship is everlasting. 5. Hunger and thirst are troublesome. 6. The miser is never contented. 7. The

king is powerful. 8. Thy step is slow. 9. The virtue of thy father is remarkable. 10. The fountain is clear and cold. 11. The generals have an illustrious name. 12. A limpid river delights all men. 13. The stag has high horus. 14. The affair is great and unusual. 15. Here are vast marshes. 16. Credulous hope deceives boys. 17. Men have a small day (short life). 18. No one is always happy. 19. The ice is slippery. 20. The wooden bridge is guarded. 21. Not all soldiers are brave. 22. The magnificent porticoes are defended. 23. The harbour is convenient. 24. We eat with sharp teeth. 25. The night is long and cold. 26. A good man is praised, a bad man is blamed. 27. Old age is often morose (cross). 28. Unhoped-for safety comes. The sea is vast, deep, swelling. 30. Much desired rest is easily lost. 31. We learn Latin. 32. Dost thon not teach Greek? 33. Barbarous nations are distant. 34. Timorous hares fly away. 35. The flower is perishable. 36. The last hour is coming. 37. Riches are uncertain. 40.

38. My mother loves ancient customs. 39. Thy words are hard.

29.

How moist is the ground. 41. The fields are not easily tilled in winter. EXERCISE 44.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

1. Amantur fidi amici. 2. Sunt mihi magnæ divitiæ, or magnæ divitia sunt mihi, or magnæ divitiæ mihi sunt. 3. Expectatam amici.

tiam amittunt. 4. Humida est humus. 5. Nocet humus humida, 6. Acuti dentes sunt leporibus. 7. Acutis dentibus edimus omnes, 8. Fortes sunt milites tui. 9. Fortesne sunt tui patris milites? 10. Credula spe delectantur. 11. Tauri cornua valida sunt. 12. Eximia sunt regis virtutes. 13. Quam pulchra est porticus. 14. Sermonem Latinum discere debes. 15. Ultimam horam expavescunt homines. 16. Valido agmine domus custoditur. 17. Avari vitantur. 18. Morosa feminæ nunquam amantur. 19. Morosi sunt molesti. 20. Sempiterna estne amicitia P 21. Spes est sempiterna. 22. Quam tardi sunt gradus tui! 23. Glacies lubrica est in hieme. 24. Nemo famem sitimque diligit. 25. Quies avolat cito. 26. Commodus navibus est portus. 27. Timidi nunquam sunt securi. 28. Sermone patris esne contentus? 29. Potentem principem feriunt. 30. Caduci flores leguntur. 31. In itinere flores legit. 32. Græca lingua est pulchra. 33. Sæpe inveniuntur tumida maria. 33. Exoptatæ sunt consolatio quiesque veræ amicitiæ. 31. Semper beatus est nemo.

EXERCISE 45.-LATIN-ENGLISH.

1. Nothing is more suited to the nature of man than benevolence. 2. Nothing is more lovely than virtue. 3. Light is swifter than sound. 4. Nothing is better than wisdom. 5. Many men are more chattering than swallows. 6. The poor are often more munificent than the rich. 7. In adversity men are often more prudent than in prosperity, & The life of the richest is often very miserable. 9. The pretence of love

is worse than hatred, 10. Nothing is better than reason. 11. The sun is greater than the earth. 12. The moon is less than the earth. 13. The sage is the happiest of all men. 14 Homer is the most ancient of all the Greek poets. 15. Flattery is a very great evil. 16. The city of Syracuse (in Latin, the city Syracuse) is the greatest and most beautiful of all the Grecian cities. 17. Evil speakers are very bad men. 18. Thy brothers are of all men the most given to evil speaking. 19. In friendship, similarity of character has more power than relationship. 20. Thy sister is more amiable than mine.

EXERCISE 46.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

13.

1. Nihil est pejus quam amoris simulatio. 2. Maximus est sol. 3. Sol major est quam luna. 4. Brevissima est hominum vita. 5. Divitissimi sæpe sunt infelicissimi. 6. Pauperrimi nonnunquam sunt felicissimi. 7. Labor est facillimus. 8. Meus labor facilior est quam tuus. 9. Mores hominum sunt dissimillimi. 10. Rex est munificentissimus. 11. Pessimi non sæpe sunt felices. 12. Boni sunt felices. Optimi sunt felicissimi. 14. Felicissimus omnium est Deus. 15. Optimi a pessimis nonnunquam contemnuntur. 16. Infirmissima est amici mei valetudo. 17. Patris hortus pulcherrimus est. 18. Filii hortus pulchrior est. 19. Difficillimus est labor. 20. Urbis muri sunt humillimi. 21. Patriam amant plurimi. 22. Nihil melius est quam virtus. 23. Portus est celeberrimus. 24. Deus omnium est maximus, optimus et sapientissimus. 25. Lacedemoniorum mores erant simpli cissimi. 26. Velocissimus est equus. 27. Corvi sunt nigerrimi. 28. Pater tuus est benevolentissimus et munificentissimus. 29. Frater tuus domum pulcherrimam ædificat. 30. Pulcherrima domus ædificatur a fratre tuo. 31. Modestissime esse debent virgines. 32. Soror tua modestior est quam frater. 33. Similis hominibus est simia. 34. Similissima estne simia hominibus? 35. Omnium animalium similis. sima hominibus est simia. 36. Nihil dulcius est quam amicitia. 37. Lacedemonii fortissimi erant. 38. Velocissima est lux. 39. Lux velocior est quam sonitus.

LESSONS IN BOOKKEEPING.-I.

INTRODUCTION.

BOOKKEEPING, as the word implies by its compound origin, signifies the art of keeping a set of merchant's books or a set of tradesman's books in such a manner as to show, at any time that may be required, the debts owing to the merchant or the tradesman; the debts which either owes; the property which either possesses; and the amount of the gains or losses which either has made or experienced in business. More concisely, Commercial Bookkeeping may be defined as the art of arranging the entries of mercantile transactions, in books adapted for the purpose, in such a systematic and orderly way, that a merchant may, at any period of the year, ascertain the actual worth of a trading concern.

A correct statement, in business form, of any mercantile transactions written in the proper book, or transferred from one book to another, is called an Entry, because it is then said to bo inserted or Entered.

The book into which the entries of all the transactions of any trading concern are ultimately collected in a proper but abridged form, for the purpose of ascertaining its actual worth at any period of the year, is called the Ledger, from the verb lego in Greek or Latin, to gather or collect.

When the entries of transactions in business are made only once in the Ledger, the books are said to be kept by Single Entry;

« ΠροηγούμενηΣυνέχεια »