$ 21.

1. The doubling of the same consonant is not very common in Greek. It takes place most frequently in the liquids, and next to them, in ʊ.

2. When o stands at the beginning of a word, if a simple vowel is made to precede it in composition or inflection, the o is usually doubled; thus ρεπον and ἀρρεπής from ῥέπω with e anda, περίῤῥους from περί and ῥέω. This, however, does not hold in the case of diphthongs, as εὔρωστος from εὖ and ῥώννυμι.

3. The aspirates are never doubled, but instead thereof an aspirate must be preceded by the kindred mute; thus Zango, Bάxχος, Πιτθεύς.

REM. 1. Those poets who do not use the Attic dialect, double a consonant very often for the sake of the metre, as oooov, ötti, evvεne, for ooov, &c. This however is not wholly arbitrary, but takes place often in some words, and never in others, as έti, etɛρος, άμα, άνεμος.

REM. 2. The poets also make use of the opposite practice, in employing the single consonant, where the common dialect has the double, as Αχιλεύς, Οδυσεύς, for ̓Αχιλλεύς, Οδυσσεύς.

$ 22.

When л, 4, and y, x, %, come before σ, they pass with the o into the kindred double consonant or §. Thus, in the future ending, which is regularly ow, are made from λein-w, dɛiyw, from λέγω, λέξω, from γράφω, γράψω, from στείχω, στείξω, &c. And in the ending of and ow of the dative plural, we find from "Apaβες,"Αραψι, from κόρακες, κόραξιν.

$ 23.

1. Before μ, in the middle of a word, the labials are uniformly changed into μ; thus in the perfect tense passive, from λɛinw, λéλειμμαι. So too from τρίβω, τρίμμα, from γράφω, γραμμή.

2. The palatics and linguals are often changed before μ,—x and x into y, and δ, θ, τ, ζ, into σ; thus πλέκω πλέγμα, τεύχω τέ τυγμαι,ᾄδω ᾆσ-μα, πείθω πέπεισμαι, ψηφίζω ψήφισμα.

$24.

The linguals 8, 9, 7, 5, can only stand before liquids. They are dropped before 6, as ᾄδω ᾄσω, πείθω πείσω, σώματα σώμασι, φράζω φράσις.

Before other linguals they are changed into o; thus do noθην, πείθω πειστέον.

τ.

$25.

1. The remains unaltered, in general, only before 8, 9, and 7. Before the labials it is changed into u, and before the palatics into y, pronounced as ng. Accordingly in composition our with and ἐν in are thus changed; συμπάσχω, ἐμβαίνω, συμφέρω, ἔμψυχος, —ἐγκαλῶ, συγγενής, ἐγχειρίζω, ἐγξέω.

An apparent exception is made in the enclitics, which are not considered as forming one word sufficiently to authorize the change of the v; thus we write τόνγε, ὅνπερ

2. Before one of the liquids, the v passes over into the same letter, as συλλέγω, ἐλλείπω, ἐμμένω, συρράπτω.

But the preposition v commonly remains unchanged before e, as ἐνράπτω.

3. Before σ and S, the v in composition is sometimes retained, sometimes changed into o, and sometimes dropped. In inflections thev is commonly dropped before o, as in the dative plural, daiμον-ες δαίμοσι, μῆνες μη-σίν.

4. When after the v, a d, 9, or t, has been omitted before ø (by § 24.) the short vowel is made long, as πάντες πᾶ-σι, τύψαν Tεs, túyaoi, for which end & passes into ε, and o into ov, as σπένδω fut. σπεί-σω, ἑκόντες dat. ἑκοῦ-σιν.

REM. 1. The exceptions to these rules, as nepavoα (2 pers. perf. pass. of gaivo) are rare, and are learned by observation.

REM. 2. Before σ and 5, is always unchanged, as ¿voɛiw. Zuv changes its v into o before a single o, as ovooiria, but if another consonant follow, and also before 5, the v is dropped, as ovστημα, συσκιάζω, συζυγία.

1. No certain laws regulate the change of the vowels, in the formation and inflection of Greek words. It includes under it the lengthening and shortening of sounds; since it rarely happens that when or o for instance, from any cause are lengthened, that they pass into or w, but generally into ɛɩ or ov.

These changes also, like those of the consonants, can be best observed, in the comparison of dialects.

REM. 1. The Ionics are prone to lengthen the ε and o of the other dialects, but principally only, when a semi-vowel follows; as ξεῖνος, εἵνεκα, υπείς, for ξένος strange, ἕνεκα on account of, ύπέρ over; νοῦσος, οὔνομα, πουλύς, κούρη, for νόσος disease, ὄνομα name, πολύς much, κόρη maiden, or when the e is followed by another vowel, as xovo-cos for-cos golden; which licenses are particularly abundant in the poets. But this is not wholly arbitrary, as there are some words never subjected to this license, such as πόλις, τόνος, μένος, περί, &c.

REM. 2. When a and o are lengthened by the Ionians, they pass into a and ot, as derós eagle, asi always; Ionic, aiɛrós, aisi. Το πόα grass, Ionic ποίη..

REM. 3. In other cases, the reverse is practised by the Ionics, Dorics, and poets; and we find μέζων, κρέσσων, χερός, for μείζων greater, nozioowy better, eigos (genitive from zelo hand); and for the accusative in ous the Dorics use os. See below in Declension II.

REM. 4. In other cases, the Dorics for o and ou make frequent use of w, as χώρος for κόρος or κούρος a young man, δῶλος for δοῦλος' a slave.

α

REM. 5. The 7 in most cases had its origin in a, which prevailed in the ancient Greek language, and remained also afterwards the characteristic sound of the Doric dialect, which commonly uses a long for n, as αμέρα for ημέρα day, φάμα for φήμη report, oravai for orĥval to stand. (See § I. 11.)

REM. 6. The Ionics, on the other hand, preferred the and commonly used it instead of the long a, as nuon, ooqin, for -a; Ζητρός, θώρηξ, for ιατρός physician and θώραξ breast plate (genitive θώρακος), πρήσσω, πρήγμα, for πράσσω, πράγμα.

REM. 7. It is a peculiarity of the Attic dialect borrowed from the Ionic, when a long stands before o, to change the a into & and the o into w; as for λαός people, ναός temple, the Attics read λεώς, νεώς.

REM. 8. The Ionic dialect frequently changes the short a into

before liquids and before vowels, as τέσσερες for τέσσαρες four ; ἔρσην for ἄρσην male ; ύελος for ύαλος glass ; μνέα for μνάα mina; and in the verbs in άw. In other cases a is used for ε, as τράπω for τρέπω Ι turn; τάμνω for τέμνω I cut ; μέγαθος for μέγεθος greatness.

REM. 9. In the compounds of autós self, and the words Davμa wonder, and τραῦμα wound, the Ionics change αν into wv, as έμεωυτόν, ἑωυτόν, θαῦμα, τρωμα.

REM. 10. Other changes are the following; nowtos the first, Doric πρᾶτος, πάρδαλις the leopard, Doric πόρδαλις,όνομα name, Holic ὄνυμα,—ἑστία hearth, Ionic ἱστίη.

$27. PURE VOWELS; CONTRACTions.

1. A vowel immediately preceded by another vowel, in the same word, is called a pure vowel, being pronounced without the aid of a consonant; and particularly the terminations in α, os, and w, are called pure, when another vowel precedes, as in oogia, διπλόος, φιλέω.

2. The characteristic difference of the Ionic and Attic dialects is, that the former, in most cases, seeks the concurrence of vowels, and the latter avoids them.

3. The common means by which the Attic dialect avoids them are the following, viz.

I. Elision, by which one vowel is cast away and the other retained.

II. Contraction, by which several vowels are drawn into one long sound. This takes place principally in the formation and in flection of words, according to the following principles.

a) Two vowels form of themselves a diphthong; thus & and οι are formed from ei and oi, as τείχει τείχει, αἰδοῦ αἰδοῖ.

The other proper diphthongs have generally a different origin; but the improper diphthongs may all be considered as formed by contraction, viz. q, y, w, from aï, nï, wï, as rnouï yńog, Oońïosa Θρήσσα, λωϊστος λῷστος.

b) Two vowels pass into a kindred long vowel or diphthong; and generally as follows:

n. from

ει from

w from

ou from

τείχεα τείχη, κέαρ κῆρ heart.

ποίεε ποίει, ῥέεθρον ῥεῖθρον stream.

ao and aου τιμάομεν τιμῶμεν, τιμάου τιμώ.
and on — αἰδοα αἰδῶ, μισθόητε μισθῶτε.

00

· πλους πλοῦς, μισθόομεν μισθοῦμεν. σε — ἐμίσθοε ἐμίσθου.

εο — τείχεος τείχους, ποιέομεν ποιοῦμεν.

c) The doubtful vowels α, ι, υ, when they are short, absorb the following vowel, and thereby become long, as ἄεθλος Ionic with short a, Attic ἆθλος combat,—τίμᾶε τίμα,—dative"Ιφit"Ιφι, —ἰχθύες and -as with u short, contr. ἰχθύς, from the sing. ἰχθύς. d) A long sound absorbs a short vowel, without farther change.* This is particularly the case with the following, viz.

With ε both before and after almost every long sound, as φιλέω φιλῶ, τιμήεντος τιμῆντος.

With a and o principally by kindred sounds and by w, as tiμάω τιμῶ, Ποσειδάων Ποσειδῶν Neptune, λᾶας λᾶς a stone, μισθόουσι μισθοῦσι, πλόοι πλοῖ

し

4. When a diphthong compounded with 4, the improper diphthongs not excepted, is to be contracted with a preceding vowel, the two first vowels undergo a change, according to the preceding rules, and the c either becomes subscript, as τύπτεαι τύπτῃ, ἀείδω ᾄδω I sing, ἀοιδή ᾠδή song, τιμάει and τιμ-ά-τιμᾷ, or the is dropped if the contracted sound is not of a nature to admit subscript, as μισθόειν μισθοῦν, Οπόεις Οπους.

REM. 1. Such are the regular contractions; but several exceptions to these rules occur, as will be seen in their places. The Ionics particularly neglect the contraction, and resolve a long sound into its original component parts, as 2 pers. sing. pass. τύπτεαι for τύπτη, and even ποιέεαι, ἐπαινέεαι, &c. for ποιέη (which is commonly still farther contracted into ποιῇ), &c. Many of these forms are common to both the lonic and Doric dialects.

REM. 2. The tendency of the Ionic dialect to resolve the long sounds is the source of the separation of the vowels in the diphthongs, which prevails among the epic poets in certain words, as

* This is not to be considered as an elision, but as a true contraction, as is seen by the use of the circumflex to compensate for the short vowel dropped ; as φιλέω, φιλῶ.