these duties extend to the sharing of each other's labors; the preservation of each other's character; the prevention of errors; and the redress of wrongs: and in maturity, they extend to the assistance of each other, as means and opportunities are afforded, in obtaining a comfortable settlement and support.

§ 3. Social Duties, are those which we owe to our fellow-men, in the relations of society; or as members of the great human family. These duties may be classed as either active or passive: that is, we are to avoid doing harm, and to strive to do good, to those around us, with a view to promote both their happiness and our own. Among the active, or positive social duties, are those of friendship, benevolence, and patriotism; while the passive, or negative, may all be comprehended under the single head of justice,as regards the persons, property, reputation, peace, and virtue of our fellow-men.

The duties of Friendship, are reciprocal; and closely resemble those of fraternity; including fidelity, kindness, defence against slander or wrong, and such advice or assistance as the relative situation of the parties may enable them to give. As these duties are voluntarily assumed, they should not be exacted by either party, longer than may be agreeable to the other; but neither should past favors be forgotten, nor old friends neglected; nor can a cessation of friendship justify subsequent injury, or betrayal of confidence. One of the most disagreeable traits of character, is a disposition to withdraw friendships once formed, on slight or insufficient cause. Great care should be exercised in the choice of friends; but still greater in preserving this relation, and performing its duties, when once assumed, either expressly, or by implication. The duties of Benevolence are not optional, but imperative on every human being. Assistance to the needy, and comfort to the distressed, whenever they can be afforded, belong to the very essence of humanity. Besides these more active duties, we owe courtesy and kindness to all persons whom we meet as feeling the need of a like civility towards ourselves. Gratitude, prompting to make a due return for favors received, is a sacred duty; allied to benevolence, if it be not a simple act of justice.

Patriotism, comprehends the duties which we owe to our country; that is to our fellow-citizens collectively. Among these duties are obedience to the laws, and constituted authorities, so long as they accord with justice and virtue; support of them, and of all useful public institutions, by our quota of time and money; and influence, in favor of public virtue, of the best measures and the worthiest men, through the ballot-box, or the press; by precept and by example. It is no excuse to say that we can do but little towards the election of public officers, or the founding and support of benevolent institutions, or the preservation of public morals. If we neglect our share, we not only cause a deficiency; but encourage others to do the same, and make the deficiency greater: and so far as these effects may extend, we are answerable for the consequences.

Justice to our fellow-men, in regard to their persons, requires that we should avoid inflicting pain, whether by wounding, maiming,

contagion, contamination, or death. In regard to property, it requires that we should neither interfere with its lawful acquisition, nor take it from others when acquired, without just reason therefor. Hence it forbids theft, robbery, extortion, fraud, circumvention, or the withholding of just dues. In regard to reputation, justice forbids that we should injure it by slander, falsehood, prevarication, or even by divulging the truth, except for their own good or that of others. We should not disparage their capacity, skill, principles, or motives, without just cause; nor injure them in the affections or esteem of our fellow-men. As regards peace, or tranquillity, we should not disturb, or alarm them, or excite their passions, without just reason; and as regards virtue, we should not only avoid impairing it, where found; but even justice requires that we should manifest our displeasure at every vicious word, action, or example, that we are compelled to witness.

§ 4. Religious Duties, are those which we owe to the Supreme Being, the Great Author of our existence; whose will we are impelled to obey, both from a sense of obligation, and a desire of future happiness, implanted in our minds through His beneficence. These duties, we repeat, comprehend all others; for to God we owe them all but we here include, more particularly, Adoration of the Deity for his perfections; Thanksgiving for his past goodness, both to ourselves and to our fellow-men; Prayer for its continuance; Submission to his will; and Obedience to his laws, whether recognised in nature or in revelation.

Among the Perfections of the Deity, which demand our highest veneration, we may name his Eternity and Ubiquity, or existence in all time and space; his Omniscience, or infinite knowledge and wisdom; his Omnipotence, or infinite power; his Excellence, or infinite purity and glory; his Benevolence, or unspeakable kindness; his Justice, which time may impeach, but eternity will vindicate; and his Mercy, in providing a way of salvation, by an eternal and infinite sacrifice, by which he may be just, and yet a Saviour of sinners, of every one who will accept the proffered grace. In reverencing the Deity for these perfections, we are necessarily inspired with those emotions which conduce to a virtuous life; and hence, such reverence becomes a part of our moral duty, aside from its higher or religious bearing.

No system of Morals can be complete, which does not lay its foundation firmly on our unchangeable relation to the Deity, and our obligation to worship him in spirit and in truth. By Prayer and Thanksgiving, we draw near to Him; and, in this communion, our worldly passions are purified, or brought back to their healthy state. Submission to His will, has a like effect upon the mind; especially in affliction; which often serves to wake the drowsy soul from dreams of earthly bliss, and wing its flight for heaven. As we are bound to obey the divine law, it is also our duty to study this law; both in the book of nature, and in that of Revelation. The more we study the Bible, the more we shall realize that it is indeed the inspired book of Eternal Wisdom. The peculiar duties which it inculcates;-Repentance and Faith in the Saviour, and the obser

vance of the Christian Sabbath and Ordinances; are those which nature must sanction, though she could never teach and they alone can prepare us for that spiritual world to which we are rapidly advancing. Of these duties, we are to treat farther, in a subsequent department; and we therefore conclude the branch of Ethics by repeating the expressive terms of Scripture; Love to God, and Good Will toward men; as the sum and substance of morality; the fruits of Christian piety; and among the essential conditions of happiness; both in this life, and in that which is to come.

CHAPTER V.

EDUCATION.

EDUCATION, is that branch of knowledge which relates to the training and guardianship of young persons, from infancy to mature age. The name is from the Latin, educo, I bring up, or educate; and it has also been termed Pedagogics, and Pedeutics, from Greek words of similar meaning. We would lay great stress on its importance; as relating to the preparation of youth for subsequent life, and influencing the character, and prospects, not only of individuals, but of nations, through ages yet to come. The highest powers, and noblest sentiments of our nature, might remain forever dormant, were they not developed by the instruction of the wise and good; who have themselves received like instruction from their predecessors. But we may use the term Education in a still wider and higher sense, to include the whole training of the soul, by inward reflection and outward events, by intercourse with men, and instruction from above, -the whole training of the human soul, for the enjoyment of immortality.

That the ancients were not inattentive to this branch of knowledge, is shown by the Cyropædia of Xenophon; in which he developes his ideas of a perfect education;-as also by the institutions of Lycurgus and Solon; the former of whom made education a business of the state; and the latter besides prescribing public instruction at the Gymnasia, excused the son from supporting his parents, if they had taught him no trade. In modern times we may point to the example of Oberlin, who, in 1767, became the pastor of the Ban de la Roche; and instructed the poor peasantry, in religion and science, agriculture and the arts, till that sterile region became the happy abode of plenty, peace, and piety. Another noble example was that of Fellenberg; who, about the year 1800, devoted his fortune to the establishment of the farm school of Hofwyl; and has there perfected the manual labor system; by which the pupils labor for their own support, and thus practise the useful arts, while they are devoting a portion of the time to letters and science. He liberally adopted Pestalozzi's modes of instruction, by diagrams and experiments, in aid of verbal description; and many farm, or manual labor schools, have since been formed, on this improved model.

Another kindred improvement, is the system of mutual instruction; introduced, in 1797, by Rev. Dr. Bell, who borrowed it from the natives of Madras, in Hindoostan; and in the promulgation of which he was greatly aided by Mr. Lancaster. By employing the advanced pupils to instruct the younger, under the careful inspection of the Superintendent, it imparts the greatest possible amount of knowledge, where there is a deficiency of teachers. We have no room to describe the national systems of education, in Prussia, France, Scotland, and other European countries; or even in the different states of our own republic; but would refer, for information concerning the former, to the recent and able report of Prof. Bache, on Education in Europe; a like report to which, on American Education, is still a desideratum.

We proceed to consider the branch of Education, under the heads of Physical, Intellectual, Secular, and Religious; concluding with some brief views of Public Education, as compared with Private, and the provisions required for its support.

§ 1. Physical Education, includes the instruction and supervision which are required for the health, strength, and developement of the body; depending on the principles of Anatomy, Physiology and Hygienics; the study of which in full belongs to the department of Androphysics. We can here only allude to the effects of air, temperature, clothing, cleanliness, diet, exercise, rest, and regular and proper habits, on our physical wellbeing. The air which we breathe, yields oxygen to the blood; without which, life would soon become extinct; as in cases of drowning, or suffocation. The oxygen of the air, is partly exhausted by the first breathing, and still more by a second and third: hence the absolute necessity of pure and fresh air, to preserve health and life. Confinement in a close room, especially in a crowd, or with a close fire, is a frequent cause of debility and disease; and its effect soon becomes visible upon the countenance, as well as the feelings, of the person thus confined. If the weather be not too damp and cold, it is doubtless better that children should pass much of their time in the open air.

The temperature which children require, varies with their constitution; but, generally, we think it best that they should be frequently exposed to as great extremes as they can safely bear: the effect being to make them more hardy and vigorous. The limits of safety will vary much with their constitution and habits; for the same exposure which would be beneficial to one, might be injurious or fatal to another. Their clothing should of course be adapted to the temperature; and not too tight. Neither should it be too warm; but yet warm enough to guard them against being chilled, by sudden changes of the weather; especially when they are fatigued, or perspiring freely. On this account, flannel is preferable for the underdress, while it is less dangerous in case of its taking fire. Personal cleanliness, and frequent bathing, are also important; in promoting the insensible perspiration, so necessary to health.

The diet, should be such as is easily digestible; neither too coarse, nor too dainty. On this subject more will be said, in treating of Hygienics: but whatever be the diet, it should be taken at regular intervals, and never in excess. Exercise, is no less essential to the

health than are food and rest. It stimulates digestion, circulation, and all the vital functions; preventing disease, languor, and enervation. It should be taken before, rather than after eating; and should be such as to call into action both the chest and the limbs. Rest should also be taken regularly, both as regards retiring, and rising early. Many other things belong to the formation and preservation of regular and proper habits, which we have no room here to mention.

§ 2. Under the head of Intellectual Education, we include the acquisition of useful and ornamental, scientific and literary knowledge; such as may be attained in seminaries of learning. How far this acquisition may be carried, in individual cases, will depend on many conditions but there are some branches of knowledge, so practically useful, and so essential to good citizenship, that we think the study of them should be required of every youth, by legislative enforcement, and, where it is necessary, by pecuniary aid from the state. Among these essential branches, we would mention Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Geography, and Grammar; as the lowest permissible degree of attainment. If these studies be tolerably acquired, they will enable any individual, however humble be his station, with the facilities which our age and country afford, to make farther advances in knowledge; each step of which will render still farther attainments more easy. The studies next in importance, in the common walks of life, are, we think, the first principles of Morals, Government, History, Geometry, and Natural Philosophy, including Astronomy and Chemistry; the theory of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts; and especially the study of the Bible, its evidences, doctrines, and precepts. Those who aspire to intellectual eminence, of course will climb far higher than this, up the hill of science; but the studies here named should, we think, be taught in our Common Schools, and should occupy the attention of young persons generally, during a part of each year, until the age of maturity.

The time, we trust, has gone by, when more general knowledge, and higher studies, were deemed superfluous, to all except professional men, the lawyer, the physician, or the divine. It is now admitted by many of the best judges, that a more liberal education, either Academical or Collegiate, may be alike beneficial to the Farmer, the Mechanic, and the Merchant; as serving to expand and quicken the mind, and to prepare the aspiring youth, not only for engaging in the labors of his profession, but for adorning a higher station, and becoming more extensively useful, should prosperity attend his career. At least, the study of languages and calculative processes, of mental and physical philosophy, of historical and political truths, of the works of nature and of art, will lay a wide basis for intellectual cultivation; and it will be the student's own fault if it is not improved, for his secular and eternal benefit.

The value of the Greek and Latin languages, is, we apprehend, often underrated. As sources of our own tongue, and of all the modern languages of Southern Europe, they deserve the attention of all thorough scholars; aside from the rich treasures of history, poetry, and philosophy which they embody. With regard to the best order of the higher branches of study, we have high authority