"Twenty years ago, only two streets, parallel with the river, were paved. In wet weather, the other streets were a perfect quagmire. In the back yards of the houses, there was only a thin crust of earth over an offensive black mud. At that time, most of the ground floors were almost in contact with the alluvial soil, and the back part of the city was low, presenting numerous pools of stagnant water. It was no wonder, under such circumstances, that a yellow fever atmosphere was generated. At present, the streets are paved. Yards are bricked, or flagged, or coated with asphaltum, which is also now generally used to coat the soil under the houses. The low parts, in the back of the city, have been filled up, and the wet swamp in the rear has been completely drained; all filth and offal in the streets is speedily removed, and the gutters are washed every day. There remains much to be done, however, before we can feel confident that a yellow fever atmosphere can no longer exist here. A great change has certainly taken place in the health of the city, which has been commensurate with the improvements carried on by the corporations and by individuals. Since 1841 we have had no yellow fever worth speaking of, and I feel assured that it is in our power, if the authorities will only adopt the necessary measures, to expel it for ever." P. 174.

The hope expressed here may be too sanguine; but the grounds suggesting it are at all events very interesting, and full of instruction. Dr. Hort is of opinion that the exemption of New York since 1822, and of Charlestown since 1832, is owing to "the general improvement in the cities, and greater attention to cleanliness particularly. It may also be in part owing to the changes of climate which we can observe, and to changes in the atmosphere which may happen, but which we cannot explain.”

Several of the correspondents who strongly maintain that the Yellow Fever is an infectious disease, liable to be imported by shipping into New York, nevertheless declare it as their firm opinion, that the disease will not spread in places that are clear and well-ventilated. The Commissioners themselves use these words:

"If the yellow-fever, cholera, or small-pox are imported diseases, they may not be epidemic, except in a vitiated atmosphere, and if the atmosphere of the city is vitiated by bad practical sanitary regulations, then commerce should be relieved, and the city authorities or its citizens held responsible for furnishing disease with food to make it epidemic and destructive. Charging the epidemic yellow fever solely to commerce, guilty though she be in part, would be unjust, and laws to regulate her, be very inadequate to preserve the life of our citizens." P. 42.

The evidence of Mr. Allen, who was a member of the Board of Health during the epidemic visitations in 1819 and 1822, is strong upon this point. After stating his conviction that the disease was imported in these years by infected vessels coming from the West Indies, he says:

"It is a fact, too, that the disease, whenever it has prevailed in this city, has been confined to a particular district, and always commenced its ravages near the wharves of the city, while other parts, particularly the upper districts, have been exempt from contagion, and sick persons removed from the infected district to said parts, in no instance have communicated the disease to those attending them, or to others residing in their vicinity." P. 231.

What a striking illustration of this last remark is to be found in the evidence of Dr. Rodgers, who was health officer of New York, in the year 1805, when the yellow fever prevailed there in such a malignant form that no fewer than 270 out of 600 cases proved fatal.

"Of those attached to the health officer's department, boatmen, orderlies, and

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Comparative Immunity of Boston.

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attendants, not one has been sick from any infection, or from any connection with the sick or infected vessels-of the lighters employed in carrying goods to the city or bringing cargoes to vessels at Quarantine, not one of them was, in the smallest degree, indisposed, till the 24th or 25th of September, when one of them was taken with fever, which left him in a few days; another was seized just after the first, and died on the 2d of October. Neither of them had any connection with any foul ship, to which they could attribute the complaint; but they took it from having had daily intercourse with the eastern part of the city, and from being under the necessity of going into houses and stores in that quarter, and staying longer in them than they had been accustomed to, by reason of the want of hands to receive their goods in consequence of the desertion of that part of the city." P. 11.

After quoting largely from Dr. Rodgers' official letter to the Board of Health, dated December 1805, the Commissioners add :-"This able physician and faithful health officer concludes his report by saying, I have now clearly shown, as far as negative proof can go, that whatever might have been the cause of the late epidemic, it did not arise from any neglect of duty at the Quarantine ground, NOR DID IT COME THROUGH THAT CHANNEL."

Equally strong is the testimony of Dr. Bayley, who was health officer during the epidemic of 1822. Of 70 persons sick with the fever, who were sent to the marine hospital on Staten island, 37 died, of whom 18 had black vomit. These cases were regularly attended by the physicians and nurses of the establishment, not one of whom was affected by the disease; nor has a single case," says the doctor, come to our knowledge of any person taking it, who was engaged in transporting the sick from the city to the hospital."

The inference, that surely may be drawn with confidence from these statements is that, admitting the general question of the infectiousness of the disease to be clearly made out, the risk of its spreading in a pure atmosphere is shewn to be exceedingly small. The case of Mr. Wells, related at page 10 of the Report, is an apt illustration of this. It would be easy to quote a host of others to the same effect.

We must not quit the examination of the Report before us without directing especial attention to the condition of Boston in reference to the question as to the importation of the Yellow fever, and the proper measures for its prevention and arrest. Boston has been singularly exempt from any severe visitation of the disease. It appeared there in 1798, in 1802, and again in 1819; but on none of those occasions did it spread to any extent, or cause great mortality. Now it seems that there is no fixed or standing code of quarantine regulations in that port against yellow fever or any other febrile disease in particular; at least, nothing at all approaching to that in force at New York, of which we have given a specimen. In place of there being any specified number of days appointed for the isolation of a merely-suspected vessel coming from a particular port, the harbour physician-who (a not unimportant circumstance) is paid by a fixed salary, and not by fees payable by the masters of the vessels-is invested with ample discretionary, but responsible, powers to adopt all means that he may deem proper to prevent the development or introduction of any infectious malady, and arrest its diffusion. The following two regulations embody his chief duties:

"It shall be the duty of the said Physician to examine into all nuisances, sources of filth, and causes of sickness, which may be on board of any vessel within the harbour of Boston, or which may have been landed from any vessel, or any wharf or other place; and under the direction of the mayor and alderman, to cause the same to be removed or destroyed." P. 237.

"Whenever any vessel shall arrive in the harbour of Boston, which is foul and infected, or whose cargo is foul and infected with any malignant or contagious disease, or any of whose crew or passengers are sick with any malignant or contagious disease, it shall be the duty of the port physician forthwith to report the same to the mayor and aldermen, and if directed by them, to cause the said vessel, her cargo and crew, or either or any part thereof, to be removed to the anchorage ground or wharf at Rainsford island, and the said vessel and cargo to be thoroughly cleansed and purified at the expense and charge of the owners, consignees or possessors of the same. And also, when directed as aforesaid, to cause all or any persons arriving in such vessel, who are sick of any malignant or contagious disease, to be removed to the hospital, on the said island, and all expenses incurred on account of such persons shall be paid by themselves."* P. 238.

By acting upon this simple and intelligible system, we are informed that "the city (of Boston) has been protected, for many years, from the introduction of any malignant or infectious diseases."

In the evidence respecting Boston, as well as that respecting New York, allusion is made, on more occasions than one, to the Yellow fever having made its appearance on board vessels when their cargoes have been begun to be moved or their holds exposed, although the crew had remained healthy during the voyage, and were so at the time of the ship's arrival in port. In illustration of this point, we give the following instance: it is mentioned in the evidence of Dr. Sweetser.

"In July, 1819, the ship Ten Brothers arrived at Boston from the coast of Africa. Her crew were all in good health and had been during her voyage. She remained a fortnight at quarantine, and then came up to the wharf, all on board continuing well. Her hatches were now removed, when immediately a large part of her crew, and also various others who had been employed on board,

The Boston code of quarantine regulation is in accordance with (was it suggested by?) the sentiments of a very able and enlightened writer in the 10th volume of the North American Review. The following passage appears to us to be replete with the best practical wisdom; it contains, we think, the key of all sound legislation upon quarantine matters.

"The application of quarantine laws ought not to be regulated in reference to the places from which vessels arrive, but by the state in which they arrive. There is no cause for detaining a ship on account of the danger of yellow fever, which is itself in a pure and healthful state, from whatever port she may have sailed, nor however sickly that place may have been. On the other hand, no ship that is foul and offensive, or that has a cargo in a putrid state, although the place from which she sailed, or the persons on board be ever so free from sickness, ought to be permitted to approach the town until she has been thoroughly cleansed. There ought to be a rigorous system of inspection, during the summer and autumn, into the state of every ship which has a cargo of a perishable nature, while she is discharging. In this manner the danger, when it exists, will be detected before it can have extended to any considerable number of persons, and will be promptly removed." P. 46,

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The Fever on Bourd the “Eclair.”

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as custom house officers and labourers, and even the crews of other vessels lying alongside, were seized with yellow fever, and which, in most of the cases, terminated fatally. The hold of this vessel had become exceedingly foul from putrefying corn. At this time, 1819, so entirely was the system of quarantine founded on the assumption of imported contagion, that the internal condition of the ship itself was not at all regarded, hence the Ten Brothers was not even subjected to ventilation at quarantine, her hatches not even being removed till she reached the wharf, when there issued from her close and foul hold such concentrated streams of poisonous effluvia, that nearly all who were exposed to them perished of a malignant yellow fever. That yellow fever, however, be thus produced, the aid of certain incidental influences would seem to be demanded, since foul ships are constantly arriving in our ports, while it is only occasionally that this fever is generated by them. A long-continued elevation of temperature, united with stillness of the atmosphere, are among the adjuvant circumstances conducive to the development and activity of the specific poison originating yellow fever." P. 158.

If the Report of the New York Commissioners is favourable to the opinion of the Yellow fever being, under certain circumstances, infectious and liable to be introduced into healthy parts by vessels having the disease on board, that of Dr. Mc William on the Boa Vista epidemic must be deemed conclusive. We earnestly solicit the attention of our readers to the analysis which we are about to give of this very able document; as, from the strict accuracy of its details, and the great care with which it has been prepared, it cannot fail to be appealed to, not only by all future professional writers on the history of Yellow fever, but also by the Legislatures of this and of other countries whenever the subject of quarantine in connexion with this disease is brought under their consideration, Being a parliamentary paper, and therefore not likely to fall into the hands of many medical men, our summary of its contents shall be as complete as possible; the main wish and object which we have had throughout this article being to bring forward a mass of admitted facts and statements, so that the reader may be enabled to form his own judgment of their value, apart from any reasonings of ours.

In the number of this Journal for July of last year, we gave a minute account of the very fatal fever which prevailed on board the "Eclair," from the time of her leaving the African coast until she arrived in England. It was then stated that, in consequence of news having come to this country, that the disease had broke out with great malignancy at Boa Vista soon after the steamer's departure, the Admiralty had sent out Dr. Mc William,-than whom, from his talents and experience, a better selection could not have been made to that island, with the view of ascertaining all the particulars of the case, and more especially of determining, as accurately as possible, the point whether the fever raging there had been introduced by the Eclair, or was of local and endemic origin.

At the close of that article, we gave it as our opinion, after a candid examination of all the facts that were at that time known, that the disease "had been imported by the infected steamer into Boa Vista." It will be seen presently whether that opinion was correct or not; but, before entering upon details, it may be well very briefly to recapitulate the leading events in the outbreak and spread of the fever on board that vessel, before and after her arrival at the Cape de Verd islands.

The "Eclair" left England for the coast of Africa in Nov. 1844. She reached Fernando Po on the 25th of December. For two months, she kept cruising along the coast. On the 23rd of February, she was at Sierra Leone, and took on board a complement of forty Kroomen. After remaining there for a few days, she returned to Seabar, off the island of Sherboro. At this place, the men were much engaged in the boats, exposed to the heat of the day, and to the dews and tainted atmosphere of the night, in that unwholesome climate. The water also, which they had for drink, was often foul and unwholesome. The first case of fever (remittent) occurred on the 3rd of April: the man recovered. The next three cases proved fatal. No fresh cases occurred from the 18th of April to the 22nd of May, when three more of the men were attacked; all died, one on the 5th, another on the 7th, and the third on the 13th day. During the next fortnight, other five cases occurred: four of the patients died in from four to nine days. The fever after this seems to have ceased for several weeks; i. e. from the 8th of June to the 19th of July, when the Eclair again reached Sierra Leone. While there, the men were engaged in cleaning out the Albert steamer which was in a most foul and offensive state, and, while employed in this most unwholesome duty, had unfortunately the opportunity of indulging to excess in the use of ardent spirits. On the day last mentioned, the fever re-appeared on board the Eclair: the man died on the eighth day. During the next three days, three fresh cases occurred: all proved fatal. On the 23rd, the Eclair left Sierra Leone, having the Albert in tow: they proceeded to the northward. Three fatal cases of fever occurred within a few days after sailing. A merchant, who had embarked in the Albert at Sierra Leone, died on board that vessel on the 27th. On the 1st of August, other two cases occurred: the patients recovered. On the 2nd, there were two fresh cases: they proved fatal. On the 8th and 9th, four men were added to the sick list: two died, and two recovered. On the 10th, the steamers reached the Gambia. After remaining till the 14th, the Eclair sailed for Goree, having four sick of the fever on board. On arriving there, she was refused pratique: one man died there. On the 17th, she proceeded to Boa Vista, which she reached on the 20th: three men had died on the passage. During the first ten days she was at Boa Vista, five fatal cases occurred. The men, the healthy as well as the sick, were then landed on the small island at the entrance of the harbour, and the vessel was overhauled the officers, &c. were accommodated at Porto Sal Rey, the chief town of Boa Vista. Notwithstanding the removal of the sick on shore, the fever continued to prevail, and even to increase; for no fewer than 28 deaths took place between the 31st of August (the day of landing) and the 12th of September, when the Eclair sailed: making in all 39 deaths from the time of leaving Sierra Leone. When the Eclair was at Boa Vista, the "Growler" steamer arrived from Sierra Leone on the 6th of September, just as the assistant-surgeon of the former was taken ill. It was then that Dr. Maclure-who, having just received his promotion, was returning to England in the Growler-nobly volunteered his services on board of the Eclair; a memorable, but not a rare we trust, instance of heroic self-devotion! We need not pursue the rest of the sad tale of the vessel from the time that she left Boa Vista until she arrived in England; as it is altogether with the events, which occurred in the former place after