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POLYTHEISM

POLYZONAL LENS

of the Aryan races.

simply the notion of consciousness, for the dis- I such idolatry among the Greek or other tribes tinction between consciousness and personality But their mythology supwas of later growth. Thus the sun, moon, and plies abundant illustrations of the way in which stars, would all be living beings; and their such a worship might be suggested. In the influence, in the lack of any idea of a natural Vedic hymns, Indra has his cattle, which are order, would be seen in the working of the daily driven to their pastures in the fields of material world, and in all the accidents of the sky; his chariot is drawn by a bull, the same human life. Their action would appear either bull which bears EUROPA across the sea. Indra, beneficent or malign; and hence these beings again, has his horses, the Harits, which by the would be invested each with their special Jews (2 Kings xxiii. 11), as by other nations, character. As being beyond human control, were worshipped in that form, but which in the and as affecting the condition of men, they hands of the Greeks were transformed into the would be loved or feared; and with the growth beautiful CHARITES. The animal worship thus of the idea that they might be propitiated or suggested might be indefinitely extended, while appeased, the system of polytheism would be it might also be degraded into the fetichism complete. But as long as the names applied to which imputes a virtue to inanimate and inorthe sun or other objects were understood in ganic matter. The same process of developetheir original sense as names for those objects, ment would be seen in the idea of sacrifice, the number of the deities would be but small. and the presentation of simple gifts would be When, as a consequence of dispersion, the followed by the surrender of the most costly meaning of these names was either in part or treasures or the most precious life. In the wholly forgotten, all the words which had de- early Vedic religion the horse, sacred to the scribed some visible object became a name for sun, is also sacrificed to him; and the phrases an independent being. [POLYONYMY] The sun which represented the death of the solar brides as the destroyer of night became PERSEUS; as as following close on that of their lord, issued the lord of light, Phoebus; as the king of day, in the practice of SUTTEE. Kephalos (Cephalus); as sinking to sleep, ENDYMION. The same process went on with all other names, and the result was an infinite multiplication of mythical beings; or, as objects of worship, gods. This developement may be distinctly traced in the fundamental Brahmanic and Zoroastrian myths. In the former, Indra is the sun-god who fights with and conquers his adversary VRITRA, the dark power of night; but the introduction of an ethical sentiment is manifest even in Vedic hymns which speak of Vritra as the enemy of man. On the Iranian soil this moral element altogether excluded the physical; and Vritra became Ahriman, who is engaged in an everlasting struggle with ORMUZD. Thus the great principle of Zoroastrian religion [DUALISM] is no suggestion of human experience or philosophical reflection, but an inevitable result of phrases employed to denote the phenomena of day and night. But although dualism is essentially polytheistic, the two great contending powers remained rather conceptions of the mind than beings of a recognised shape and form. The anthropomorphic tendency would show itself chiefly in less speculative races, and hence would be specially powerful among the Greeks, for whom the king of Olympus and the lord of light became beings of the same form and of the same passions with himself.

The worship of animals has been traced by many to a supposed universal worship of nature. Of this worship the episode of the cattle of Helios, in the Odyssey (xii.), is taken by many as furnishing some evidence. (Gladstone, Homer and the Homeric Age, ii. 412; Dasent, Popular Tales from the Norse, Introduction, xix.; Max Müller, Comparative Mythology, 53, 81; Cox, Tales from Greek Mythology, 118; Gods and Heroes, 68.) But although in Egypt some animals may have been regarded with special veneration, we have no proof of any

But all these developements, although in the minds of the multitude they might almost extinguish a monotheistic belief, would not necessarily obscure it for men of deep and earnest thought. The Zeus to whom Achilleus prays in time of real trouble is not the Zeus who recounts the number of his earthly loves, but the Zeus to whom Eschylus appeals as incomprehensible yet perfectly just and righteous, and of whom Sophocles speaks as the father of the unfailing laws of purity and truth. In other words, polytheism began not with a conviction or belief, but from the necessities of human language, and as such it obtained a power over men proportionate to the degree in which they submitted themselves to the tyranny of words, and regarded names as something more than arbitrary titles attached to outward objects for the common purposes of life.

The theory of polytheism has been discussed in such works as Stillingfleet's Origines Sacræ ; Kames, Sketches of the History of Man; Cudworth's Intellectual System; Vossius, De Origine Idololatrie; but these writers had not before them that evidence on the earliest phases of human thought which has been more recently furnished by the results of philological science,

Polyxene (Gr. πολύξενος. from πολύς, and ¿évos, a strange ). A name given by Hausmann to the ore of Platinum, as indicating the many new metals which are associated with it.

Polyzoa (Gr. woλús, and (wor, animal). A class of compound animals resembling the Sertularians in their organs of support, but in their internal organisation approaching nearly to the compound Ascidians The term is synonymous with the Bryozoa of Ehrenberg, to which the most extended currency is given.

Polyzonal Lens (Gr. Toλús; Cúvn, zone). The name given by Sir David Brewster to a burning lens constructed of several zones or

Pompholyx (Gr. noμpóλvέ, a bubble). An alchemical term for oxide of zinc. POMPHOLYX. In Medicine, a vesicular erup-native species. tion upon the skin.

Pompoleon. One of the names for the Shaddock, and in this country especially applied to the large-sized specimens. It is called Pampelmouse by the French.

PONTOONS

POOR LAWS

The college was divided into two classes, distin- | fan-shaped ornament, called by the former guished by the epithets majores and minores; apλaσтov, and by the latter aplustre, which rose but it is not certain whether this difference of over the head of the steersman and served to title marked out the patricians from the plebeians, protect him from wind and rain. On the or the more ancient members from the seven column of Trajan a lamp is suspended from or added by Sylla. The pontifices judged in all before the helmsman. The aplustre was the causes relating to sacred things, and inspected ornament corresponding to the acrostolium the conduct of the inferior priests. They were a which decorated the prow. self-elected body down to the latter ages of the Poor Laws, England. The leading starepublic, when the power of election was some-tute on this subject is that of Queen Elizabeth, times held by the people. It was finally vested 43 Eliz. c. 2, out of which' (says Dr. Burn) in the emperors, who added as many to their have arisen more litigation, and a greater numbers as they thought fit. The chief of the amount of revenue, with consequences more pontifices was called the pontifex maximus, and extensive and more serious in their aspect, was always created by the people, being gene- than ever were identified with any other Act of rally chosen from those who had borne the Parliament or system of legislation whatever.' first offices in the state. His station was one Under this statute and those which followed of great dignity and power, as he not only had grew up the system under which every poor supreme authority in religious matters, but, in person was entitled to relief from that parish in consequence of the close connection between the which he possessed a SETTLEMENT. The great civil government and religion of Rome, exer- abuses to which this law ultimately led are now cised considerable political influence. The title matter of history. It was in order to reform of pontifex maximus being for life, Augustus them that the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1833 never assumed it till the death of Lepidus, was passed (4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 76), which is now after which it was always held by himself and (though amended by many subsequent stahis successors to the time of Theodosius. The tutes) the governing law. The administration insignia consisted of the toga prætexta, and of parochial funds was placed under the a conical woollen cap with a tassel (galerus). superintendence of the central board of poor (Mém. de l'Acad. des Inser. vols. xii. xv. xxiv. law commissioners. The parishes were conxxxvii.) From this word the title of pontiff solidated into unions, each administered by a in modern Europe is derived. Supreme pontiff board of guardians, partly elective and partly is a common style of the pope. ex officio. The right of relief was maintained; but the mode of administering it was left under the control of the guardians, subject to the general rules of the poor law board. Several kinds of settlement known to the old and complicated law having been abolished, it can now be obtained only: (1) By birth, which is the primâ facie settlement of every one. (2) By parentage; or (3) by marriage; all legitimate children taking the last settlement of the father, and, after his death, of the mother, until emancipation (by full age, marriage, &c.), and illegitimate of the mother until sixteen. A woman also acquires her husband's settlement by marriage. (4) By renting a tenement under certain conditions. (5) By apprenticeship. (6) By holding an estate. (7) By payment of public taxes. A poor person also, though not acquiring a settlement, becomes irremovable from his place of abode after a certain period of residence. By the Union Chargeability Act of 1865 the cost of the relief of the poor has been thrown on the unions instead of the parishes, as formerly; and questions arising on the law of settlement may be expected to be less frequent than heretofore.

Pontoons (Fr. ponton; Lat. pons, a bridge). A Military term, denoting portable floating vessels, forming the supporting part of the bridge equipment of an army. The Continental pontoons are of a flat-bottomed boat shape, and made of sheet-iron or wood. Our service pontoon is of tin, cylindrical, with hemispherical ends: the large one is 22 feet 3 inches long, and 2 feet 8 inches in diameter; the small one 14 feet 9 inches long, and 1 foot 7 inches in diameter.

Pony (Mr. Wedgwood connects this word with the Polish konik, the diminutive of kon, a horse, as the English poll answers to the Old Norse kollr, the head: Dictionary of English Etymology). The small variety of horse which is found in the northern regions of Europe. The ponies of Norway occasionally possess streaks on the hinder legs, like the quagga of

Southern Africa.

Poonahlite. A variety of Scolecite occurring in slender rhombic prisms and radiating fibrous masses, resembling Needlestone. It is found at Poonah in Hindustan, where it forms large white kidney-form masses, with a pearly lustre, in amygdaloid.

Poop (Fr. poupe, Lat. puppis, a ship). A partial deck extending from about the mizen mast close aft, above the complete deck of the vessel. It is rapidly disappearing from modern ships, as a useless cause of leeway and a mark for an enemy's shot. A sea coming over the stern is said to poop the vessel.

In the vessels of the ancient Greeks and Romans, the highest part of the poop had a

Poor Laws, Ireland. Until the present reign, the poor in Ireland had no legal right to relief; while the system of voluntary assessment, so extensively established in Scotland, hardly existed. In the first year of Victoria the general system of the English poor law was introduced; and by 10 & 11 Vict. c. 90, a board of commissioners for administering the law for relief of the poor in Ireland is established, distinct from that of England.

POOR LAWS

POPULATION

Poor Laws, Scotland. The Poor Law | PAPAVER. The Opium Poppy, which is the Amendment Act of Scotland was introduced in most important species, is P. somniferum. 1845 (8 & 9 Vict. c. 83). It establishes a board Population. In Political Economy and of supervision of ten members (one paid), with Statistics, the number of persons occupying the power to make rules and regulations; burghal soil of any given country, and maintained by parishes, or combinations of parishes with its produce. Enquiries into the amount and boards of managers of the poor, with power distribution of the population in various civito raise funds by compulsory assessment; and lised communities have always a great interest, gives the destitute poor a right of relief in the and are eminently illustrative of important ecoparish to which they belong, the settlement nomical principles. The theory of rent, the cost being obtained by reference. Prior to this of producing utilities, the laws which govern statute, the relief of the poor was effected prices, the circumstances which facilitate or by voluntary assessment: and in 1854, 194 thwart human industry, the stimulants and parishes still retained this system, while 689 consequences of emigration, and many other had adopted the compulsory. similar subjects, are connected with the facts of population, and the law of its increase.

Poor Rates. [PAUPERISM.]

Pope (Lat. papa). This word, signifying father, was in earlier times applied indiscriminately to all bishops and presbyters; but in the Western church the term has long been confined to the bishop of Rome, who is also designated by Roman Catholics as the Holy Father. In the Greek church it is still the title of all priests. [PAPACY.]

The population of every settled or ancient country, as contrasted with the population found on such sites as are not yet fully occupied, is the whole number that subsists on its produce. The amount, therefore, and the character of the food habitually required by the people of any given country, is one factor contributing to the total, the rate of production is another, and the power of purchasing and carrying supplies from foreign regions is a third. Whatever may be collected from these elements will, except under peculiar and anomalous circumstances, tend to the aggregate population of the country. Nor does this apply to countries only, for exactly the same causes will be found to govern the growth of cities. When the operation of the causes mentioned above is disturbed or weakened, it is not possible that cities should be large and increasing; but when these causes are fully operative, there is no necessary limit to the aggregation of mankind and the growth of towns. A little further explanation will serve to show the significance of these coefficients.

Poplar (Fr. peuplier, Lat. populus). The common name for the trees of the genus Populus. These trees are of rapid growth, and consequently their timber is soft, light, and of a loose texture; they are remarkable for a greater or less amount of tremulous motion in the leaves, occasioned by the length and slenderness of the leafstalk, which, instead of being flattened horizontally, or in the same plane with the leaf, as is the case with the generality of trees, are compressed vertically, so that the plane of the leaf and that of the stalk form a right angle with each other. The Lombardy Poplar, P. fastigiata, is the formal cypress-shaped tree with perpendicular slender branches common in suburban gardens, but scarcely ornamental ex- The first-named cause has not been sufficept when its taper-head rises above a mass of ciently recognised by economists. If the mass round-headed trees and breaks or relieves a of a community demands habitually a high too continuous horizontal line. Its timber is standard of living, and will not, except under of little use, except for packing-cases. The temporary pressure, submit to a lower rate, Black Italian Poplar, P. monilifera, is the fastest-population will not increase in the same ratio as growing of all the species, and sends up a remarkably straight stem. The timber of P. alba, the White Poplar or Abele, is of little value; but that of the Grey Poplar, P. canescens, a tree of slower growth, is used by the carpenter, turner, and millwright for many purposes. In P. tremula, the Aspen, the leaves are especially liable to the tremulous motion peculiar to the family. P. balsamifera, the Tacamahac, is remarkable for its fine foliage in early summer, and for the pleasant balsamic odour of its buds and leaves.

when an inferior or low standard is accepted. For instance, from the earliest recorded times, the staple food of the people of England has been wheaten bread. Now wheat is not only relatively, i.e. by virtue of the demand for it, but absolutely, i. e. by the cost of cultivating it, the dearest of all grain crops. It takes more labour to grow a bushel of wheat than it does to grow a bushel of any other kind of grain. Hence the population, being accustomed to this food, and never voluntarily using any other, cannot become larger than the number which can be maintained on the wheat grown and purchased for the use of food. On the other hand, the Irish subsist generally on potatoes, the Scotch on oatmeal: the one being the cheapest food that can possibly be procured; the other, bulk for bulk, the cheapest kind of grain. Hence there is a tendency among these nations to increase Poppy (A.-Sax. papig, Lat. papaver). The up to the average amount which can be proname commonly applied to the species of cured of these kinds of food, and, equal amounts

Poplin. A kind of fine woven stuff, made of silk and worsted.

Popliteal (Lat. poples, the ham). Relating to the posterior part of the knee-joint or ham. Poppets. Timbers used as shores to support the cant-bodies of the bow and stern on the bilgeways preparatory to the launching of a ship.