SHORE borders of Brazil, in French Guiana, in the channel of Bahama, on the continent of North America, in Labrador, and in Greenland; and even at Carlsruhe, Halle, and other places in Germany, many shooting stars were seen on the same day. At Nain and Hoffenthal in Labrador, and at Neuhernhut and Lichtenau in Greenland, the meteors seem to have approached the nearest to the earth. At Nain they fell towards all points of the horizon; and some of them had a diameter which the spectators estimated at half an ell. (Humboldt's Recveil des Voyages, &c. vol. ii.) SHRAPNEL SHELLS robusta, the Saul or Sâl, is a native of India, extending from the provinces of Bengal and Behar to the foot of the Himalayas within the limits of the tropics. It is a magnificent and most important timber-tree, frequently attaining a height of upwards of a hundred feet. The wood is of a light-brown colour, close-grained, strong and durable, and is extensively employed in India, both by the natives and by Europeans, for shipbuilding, engineering, and other purposes where great strength and toughness are requisite. It is stronger, and at the same time much heavier than Indian teak. An oil is obtained from the seeds. Part of the resin known as Dammar is likewise obtained from this and other species of Shorea. Shores (Dutch schoor). Strong props, on the slip. They are placed under the wales of the ship's bottom. Breast-shores are similar props used when a completed vessel is docked. The second great meteoric epoch is the 10th of August, first pointed out by M. Quetelet; and although no displays similar to those of the November period have been witnessed on this night, there are more instances of the re-used in shipbuilding, to keep the vessel steady currence of the phenomena. In the three years 1838, 1839, 1840, shooting stars were observed in great numbers both on the 9th and 10th; but they appear in general to be unusually abundant during the two first weeks of August. The other periods which have been remarked are the 18th of October, the 23rd or 24th of April, the 6th and 7th of December, the nights from the 15th to the 20th of June, and the 2nd of January. Short Page. In Printing, a page short of its full quantity of matter, such as those at the ends of chapters, or at the end of a book. Shorthand Writing. [STENOGRAPHY.] Shortstuff. In Shipbuilding, thin planks fastened over the ribs on the inside between the portholes. Shot (A.-Sax. scyt). Any solid PROJECTILE. Shot Lockers. Long pieces of wood pierced with holes like cups, in which the shot are placed, along the sides and round the hatchways. Shoulder Blade. The scapula, or pleurapophysial element of the pectoral arch. Shoulder-of-Mutton Sail. A triangular sail used in small vessels as an auxiliary to prevent leeway. It is mounted on a temporary mast at the stern, its base being extended on a beam, and its apex against the mast. No gaff is employed. Halley first suggested the idea that the shooting stars may be observed as signals for determining differences of longitude by simultaneous observations; and Maskelyne in 1783 published a paper on the subject, in which he calls the attention of astronomers to the phe- Shoulder (A.-Sax. sculdre, Ger. schulter). nomena, and distinctly points out this applica- In Fortification, the angle of a bastion intion. The idea was revived by Benzenberg included between the face and flank. 1802; but so long as they were regarded merely as casual phenomena, it could scarcely be hoped that they would be of much use in this respect to practical astronomy. As soon, however, as their periodicity became probable, the phenomena acquired a new interest; and some recent attempts to determine longitudes in this manner have proved that the method is not to be disregarded. In fact, most of our most recent knowledge of the star-showers has been acquired by systematic observation of them at places some distance apart, telegraphically connected. See an interesting paper on this subject by Dr. Olbers, in Schumacher's Jahrbuch for 1837; also the Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes for 1836; Mém. de l'Acad. de Bruxelles for 1838; Schumacher's Astronomische Nachrichten, vols. xvi. and xvii.; and general papers communicated during 1863, 1864, and 1865, by Mr. Newton to Silliman's Journal, and by Mr. Herschel to the Monthly Notices of the Astronomical Society. Shoveller. The name of a species of duck, remarkable for the length and terminal expansion of the shovel-like bill; whence the name of Spathulea, proposed for the subgenus of which it is the type. It is the Anas clypeata of Linnæus. Shrapnel Shells. In Artillery, a shell invented by General Shrapnel of the Royal Artillery. The projectile originally consisted of a thin iron shell filled with balls, sufficient powder being inserted with the balls to cause, when ignited by the fuse, the bursting of the shell; it was designed to act as case or grape at longer range than was attainable by those projectiles. Hence it was also called spherical case shot. The essence of the shell's construction is that the bursting charge should be so shorea (after Sir J. Shore, governor- small as merely to open the shell, allowing the general of Bengal). This tropical Asiatic bullets to continue in flight with unimpeded genns belongs to the order Dipteracee, and velocity. Improved Shrapnel shells had the consists of large resinous trees, with entire or bursting charge separated from the balls by wavy-edged leaves, and axillary and terminal being placed in a cylinder in the middle of the panicles of sweet-smelling yellow flowers. S. shell. In the diaphragm Shrapnel shell the Shore. In Architecture, a piece of timber or other material placed in such a direction as to prop up a wall or other heavy body. 1 SHREW powder is separated by an iron diaphragm from the bullets, all space between which is filled up with coal-dust. Shrapnel shells should burst about fifty yards short of the object, and should not be fired at very long ranges, or the bullets will not have sufficient velocity. Shrew. A small insectivorous mammal, some species of which are aquatic. [SOREX.] Shrike. A name for the Butcher birds, or species of Lanius. Shrine (Ger. schrein; Lat. scrinium, a desk or cabinet; whence also screen). Properly, the receptacle of the remains or relics of a saint. Shrines are of two sorts: portable, used in processions, called in Latin feretra; and fixed in churches. The appropriate place for shrines, in the churches of the middle ages, was generally in the eastern part, in the space behind the high altar. Such is the situation of the celebrated shrine of the three kings of Cologne; and such was that of the shrines at St. Albans, Canterbury, Durham, and Westminster, before the Reformation. (Archæologia, vol. i.) Shrouds (A.-Sax. scrud). The large ropes supporting a mast laterally; they take the names of their respective masts, as main shrouds, fore-topmast-shrouds, mizen-topgallant shrouds, &c. Shrove Tuesday. The Tuesday after Quinquagesima Sunday, and immediately preceding Ash Wednesday; so called from the Anglo-Sax. shriven, to confess, because on that day confession was made preparatory to the fast of Lent. Shrub (A.-Sax. scrob, Ger. schroff, rough). In Botany, a small low dwarfish tree, which, instead of one single stem, frequently puts forth from the same root several sets or stems. SHRUB. The name given to a species of sweet wine or liqueur, of which rum forms the chief ingredient. Shuttle (Icelandic skutul). An instrument used by weavers, which guides the thread it contains, so as to make it form the woofs of stuffs, cloths, linen, and other fabrics, by throwing the shuttle alternately from left to right and from right to left across between the threads of the warp, which are stretched out lengthwise on the loom. In the middle of the shuttle is a kind of cavity, called its eye or chamber, in which is enclosed the spoul, which is part of the thread destined for the woof. Shwan Pan. The calculating instrument of the Chinese. It is similar in shape and construction to the Roman abacus, and is used in the same manner. [ABACUS.] SIDA sembling the yaws, and propagated by direct application of the contagious matter. Siberite. A synonym of Rubellite or Red Tourmaline, the finest specimens of which have been found in Siberia. Sibyl (Gr. Zíßuλλa). The name given to certain prophetic women said to have lived in Greece and Italy. Some authors recount as many as ten of them. The most celebrated were the Sibyl of Cumæ, fabled to have been consulted by Æneas, and the prophetess who is said to have offered her books to Tarquin the Proud. (Mém. de l'Acad. des Inscr. vol. xxiii.) Sibylline Books. Documents supposed to contain the fate of the Roman empire. Nine of them are said to have been offered by an old woman, called Amalthæa, to Tarquin the Proud; but Tarquin refusing to give the price which she asked, she went away, and burnt three of them. Returning with the remainder, she offered them to the king on the same terms as before; and on his second refusal departed again, and returned with three, which she still offered at the same price as the original nine. The king, struck with her conduct, at last acceded to her offer, and intrusted the care of the books to certain priests (the quindecemviri). The story runs that they were preserved in a stone chest beneath the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, being consulted in times of public danger or calamity, and that they were destroyed by the fire that consumed the Capitol in the Marsie war. After this calamity, ambassadors were sent to collect such fragments of Sibylline prophecies as they could pick up in various countries; and from the verses thus collected Augustus formed two new books, which were deposited in two gilt cases in the temple of the Palatine Apollo. Sibylline verses are often quoted by Christian writers, as containing prophecies of Christianity; but these were composed during the second century of the Christian era. Sicilian Earth. A name sometimes given to fossil bezoar, which appears to be of a similar character to Armenian Bole. Sicilian Vespers. In Modern History, the name commonly given to the great massacre of the French in Sicily, in A. D. 1282. They were the soldiers and subjects of Charles of Anjou, who had made himself master of the island after the defeat and death of Conradin. The insurrection broke out on the evening of Easter Tuesday. Its consequence was the expulsion of Charles; and the islanders placed themselves under the protection of the king of Arragon. Si. In Music, the French and Italian name for the seventh sound, added by Le Maire, a Sick-bay. On Shipboard, a portion of the Frenchman, at the latter end of the seven-main-deck partitioned off for invalids. It is teenth century, to the six ancient notes, ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, of Guido. It corresponds to our B. Sialagogue (Gr. olaλov, saliva; àywyós, a leader). Medicines which increase the flow of saliva. Sibbens. A disease endemic in some of the western parts of Scotland, somewhat re usually in the bow. The partitions are easily removed, and in time of action, in a man-ofwar, the sick-bay is transferred to the cockpit. Sida (Gr. oidn). An extensive genus of Malvacea, many of the species of which are used medicinally. The root of S. acuta is esteemed by the Hindus as a valuable stomachic, and is administered in ague, dysentery, SIDE KEELSONS and as a remedy for snake-bites, while the leaves are used as a poultice, as likewise are those of S. retusa, S. stipulata, and S. mauritiana. Others are used in cases of rheumatism, and as an application in cases of the stings of wasps and other insects. The wood of these trees is extremely light; that of S. micrantha is used to make rocket-sticks in Brazil, where large quantities are employed on fête-days at the doors of the churches. The Chinese cultivate S. tiliefolia for the sake of the fibre of its bark, which they prefer to hemp. SIEGE and are one of the kinds known to the English residents in Western tropical Africa (where the plant is indigenous) by the name of Miraculousberry, being eaten in order to counteract the acidity of any article of food or drink, their sweet flavour being retained by the palate for a considerable length of time. They are rather more than half the size of olives, and somewhat of the same shape. Among the natives they form an article of trade. Siege (Fr. siége; Ital. seggia, Lat. sedes, a seat, from the setting down of an army Side Keelsons. In large ships, keel- before the beleaguered fortress). A Military sons parallel to, and somewhat smaller than term, denoting the carrying on of offensive the principal keelson, and distant about six works and operations in the attack of fortresses. feet from it. They extend from fifteen to The nature of sieges has, at all times, detwenty-five feet fore and aft of the main-mast, pended upon the character of the defensive and are bolted through to the outside planking. works, and the arms and projectiles in use. The object is to give additional support to the In the days of slings, bows, and simple walls, ship's frame in the part adjoining the principal | the attack was conducted under great disadmast, and consequently the point of greatest vantages. The more concentrated the garrison, strain. Side Lever. The part of a certain species of marine engine which communicates the motion from the side rods to the cross tail, and which answers to the working beam in land engines. [STEAM ENGINE.] Side-saddle Flower. One of the names of the curious pitcher-bearing genus of plants, called Sarracenia by botanists. Sidereal System. [STAR.] Siderite (Gr. oldnpos, iron). Sparry Ironore, or native carbonate of iron. The term Siderite has also been applied to a vitreous variety of Quartz of an indigo or Berlin blue colour, from Golling near Salzburg. Siderocalcite (a word coined from the Gr. olonpos, and Lat. calx, lime). The name given by Kirwan to the Brown Spar of Werner. Sideroschistolite (Gr. olonpos; σxioτós, cleavable; and loos, stone). A hydrated silicate of iron, found in small six-sided black prisms at Conghonas do Campo in Brazil. Sideroscope (Gr. σídnpos; σкоTéw, I view). An instrument for detecting minute degrees of magnetism in substances usually supposed to be non-magnetic-the name having reference to the hypothesis that the traces of magnetism so detected are due to the presence of atoms of iron. The apparatus proposed by Lebaillif, in which the object is accomplished by means of a very delicate combination of magnetic needles, is described by Pouillet, Elémens de Physique, and by Sir D. Brewster, Treatise on Magnetism' in the Encyclopædia Britannica. Sideroxylon (Gr. σidnpos, and túλov, wood). A genus of Sapotaceous trees, often of large size, distributed over both hemispheres, but rarely extending beyond the tropics. Its name is given in allusion to the very hard wood afforded by the various species. The woods of many widely different trees, however, are likewise called Ironwood, almost every country producing a hard wood to which that name is applied. The fruits of S. dulcificum have, as the specific name denotes, an exceedingly sweet taste, the more strength it possessed. The attack could be made only within a short distance of the walls, and always in a direction parallel to the front attacked. Escalade was the first means of attack attempted, and when it failed, wooden towers, higher than the walls, were brought against the latter; the battering ram and the mine were employed to effect a breach. The adoption of gunpowder and cannon greatly simplified the attack, for the walls, which had hitherto sufficed for defence, were easily breached by the heavy projectiles hurled against them. It became necessary, therefore, to protect the walls, and devise new modes of defence. [FORTIFICATION.] These, again, demanded a new mode of attack, the besieger bringing an overpowering fire on such of the works of the fortress as could be seen, and under its cover advancing close to the fortress, where he raised high mounds of earth, on the top of which he placed batteries to sweep the interior of the defences. Under cover of this fire, he either assaulted the place or advanced to a nearer position from which the walls could be breached. The attack thus conducted was very tedious, owing to the enormous labour of raising the mounds of earth for the cavalier batteries. The genius of Vauban, however, by the invention of ricochet fire, and by modifying the ordinary siege works of the period, and combining them into a regular system of attack, shortened the duration of sieges, and gave them a certainty which they did not possess before. The following sketch of a siege is based upon the practice of Vauban and other generals, and is supposed to be conducted against two ravelins and a bastion between them, of the modern French system, and with smooth-bore arms only, as no regular siege has been carried on since the introduction of rifled arms. attacks on the small and feebly armed forts in America have been on too small a scale, and too irregular, to afford much information on regular sieges, and neither the Prussian nor Italian armies have undertaken the siege of The any Austrian fortress in the campaign of actual siege, and the other called the army of 1866. The army advancing into the theatre of war for the reduction of a fortress, may be divided into two grand divisions, one for the observation or covering army, for operating in the field to prevent the interruption of the siege. The besieging army may be subdivided into the investing corps and the attacking corps, A'A' and A A. First parallels. FF. Demi-parallels. G. II. Range 2,000 yards. A'A' extend to right and to left about 300 yards beyond margin. B B' and C C. Third parallel. D D. Fourth parallel. E E. Fifth parallel. Range 1,400 yards from batteries similar to 1. HH. Range 1,400 yards. K. Communications to Dépôts, Camps, &c. LL. Zigzags or approaches. N. Attacked bastion with breaches. O. Similar works all round to complete Fortress. a a. Trench cavaliers. b. Redoubt. c. Enfilade battery, 12 guns. d. Counter battery, e. Counter battery, 14 guns. f. Enfilade battery, 7 guns. g. Enfilade battery, 7 guns. h Counter battery, 16 guns. i. Counter battery, 14 guns. k. Enfilade battery, 12 guns. 1. Enfilade M M. Range 600 yards. 12 guns. batteries. m. Small detached counter battery. N.B.-The continued lines represent an attack with smooth-bored guns; the dotted lines an attack with rifled guns. sorties. this latter furnishing the working parties and the guards of the trenches, to protect them from The investment [INVESTMENT OF A FORTRESS] is established suddenly and secretly, and is maintained rigorously throughout the whole siege, otherwise the fortress might be relieved, and the siege either prolonged or rendered hopeless. While the investment is being established, officers of the staff and engineers are employed in making and verifying plans of the fortress and adjacent ground, and in collecting every information bearing upon the proposed attack. This is called making the reconnaissance, and in doing so great care must be taken not to let the enemy know where it is proposed to attack the fortress, but, on the contrary, to endeavour to convey a false impression, this mistaken idea being often further carried out by the prosecution of a false attack for a considerable period. The front most susceptible of attack having been selected, a project of attack is designed, which, however, can rarely be carried out in its integrity. The artillery park and the engineer dépôt are then placed conveniently, and out of sight and range of the fortress. about 120 yards of the covered way, where the In the advance by systematic approach, saps A fifth parallel connects the On the night in which ground is broken or the trenches opened, the first parallel or trench, to serve as a covered road and to protect the guards, is traced and constructed parallel to the works of the fortress, at a distance from them of from 400 to 800 yards, and extending on flank far enough to cover the most exposed batteries. During the same night trenches of The redoubt of the ravelin is breached by communication are carried from the dépôts to the parallel, traced in zigzags, so that the enemy mines, and when this work falls the covered cannot see along their interior. All the paral-way in front of the bastion may be crowned, Batteries are formed in lels, communications, and approaches, are about without fear of these lodgments being seen into from the redoubt. three to four feet deep, and ten feet wide. these lodgments to oppose the flanking fire of the main ditch to be crossed. Saps are pushed on in the redoubts of the ravelins until the coupures of the ravelins are taken in reverse, when, the enemy abandoning them, they are and taken possession of, and from them the redoubts in the covered way are taken in reverse, these being abandoned are occupied and furnish sites for the principal breaching batteries, others being likewise constructed outside the redoubts. During the next few nights the batteries are constructed and armed, and in all possible cases enfilade batteries are employed to fire en ricochet. Three or four guns so placed, and sending their shot bounding along the face of the enemy's works, will dismount or disable all the guns on the face enfiladed. When it is impossible to have enfilade batteries, direct or counter batteries are constructed, replying with one or two guns to every gun mounted on the face to be silenced. When these batteries have in a great measure silenced the artillery fire of the fortress, a second parallel is constructed about half-way between the first parallel and the fortress, and communications made between the parallels by zigzags. When the artillery fire of the place has been completely silenced, the approaches are pushed on by sapping, a very slow process, the advance depending on the rate at which the sapper, at the head of the sap, can work, rolling on before him the covering sap roller, and placing the gaWhen the heads bions to be filled with earth. of these approaches are too far advanced from the parallel for proper support, short trenches called demi-parallels are pushed out right and left, and guards of the trenches placed in them. The approaches are again pushed on to within 443 While these batteries are breaching the main escarp, saps are driven to the edge of the main ditch, the walls of which are mined, access being thus given to the main ditch, across which saps are driven to the breaches, which on being captured are crowned, and thus the salient of the bastion is taken possession of. The place may then be said to have fallen; for if the besieged have constructed any retrenchments inside, they will soon be reduced by similar operations or by assault. These works, if carried on without interruption, would occupy about forty nights. As to the future of sieges, the balance of professional opinion is decidedly in favour of the defence, under the assumptions that iron in the form of cupolas, shields, and plates is available, as well as large rifled guns carrying elongated |