The Mercantile Navy consists of nearly 4,000 Swedish, and upwards of 7,000 Norwegian vessels.1

The principal Ports are STOCKHOLM, GOTHENBURG or GÖTEBORG, MALMÖ, CARLSCRONA, and NORRKÖPING, in Sweden; CHRISTIANIA, BERGEN, DRAMMEN, and TRONDHEIM, in Norway.

There are few good roads in either country in comparison to their extent, but 9,179 miles of railways (7,631 miles in Sweden, and 1,548 miles in Norway) are open for traffic, and numerous steamboats ply on the navigable rivers and Jakes and along the coast.

The Göta Canal, in Sweden, completes the partly natural water-communi cation between the North Sea and the Baltic by the River Göta and Lakes Wener and Wetter. To avoid the Falls of Trolhatta an artificial channel, nearly a mile long, has been cut in the solid rock.

GOVERNMENT: Sweden and Norway are two absolutely i dependent kingdoms. The Legislative Assembly, or Storthing, of Norway has, however, greater power than the Parliament, or Diet, of Sweden.

Previous to the year 1814, Norway formed part of the Danish kingdom, but by the Treaty of Kiel (January 14, 1814) the Danish King ceded Norway to the King of Sweden. The Norwegians, however, would not ratify this arrangement, and elected Prince Frederick of Denmark as their king. The prompt entry of Swedish troops, and the refusal of the European powers to acknowledge the newly-elected king, forced the Norwegians to conclude a convention with Sweden, by which the Crowns of the two kingdoms were united, but not the Parliaments. This union of the two kingdoms continued to exist till October 26, 1905, when it was repealed, and the throne of Norway, after having been declined by a prince of the royal house of Sweden, was offered to, and accepted by, Prince Karl of Denmark.

The annual Revenue of Sweden amounts to nearly 10 millions sterling, and that of Norway to about 51⁄2 millions. The Expenditure of each country is about the same as the Revenue. The Public Debt of Sweden, contracted entirely for railways, amounts to 21 millions, and that of Norway to 141⁄2 millions, incurred chiefly in the construction of railways.

The Norwegian Army numbers about 31,000 men on a peace footing; and that of Sweden, about 37,000 men, The Navies, both of Sweden and Norway, consist of only a few vessels, for coast defence merely.

DIVISIONS: Sweden embraces three great divisions, called Sweden Proper, Gothland, and Nordland. These are further divided into 24 "Governments" or Läns.

Norway is divided into 6 Stifts-Christiania, Christiansand, Hamar, Bergen, Trondheim, and Tromsö, which are subdivided into 20 Amts.

TOWNS: Less than one-fith of the people of Sweden live in towns, of which there are 22 with over 10,000 inhabitants. Only two Swedish towns, STOCKHOLM and GOTHENBURG, have over 100,000 inhabitants.

In Norway, only one town. CHRISTIANIA, has a population of above 100,000; four-BERGEN, TRONDHEIM, STAVANGER, and DRAMMEN-have between 20,000 and 50,000; and eight have between 10,000 and 20,000. The popu lation of Sweden and Norway is thus mainly rural.

1. In proportion to i s population, Norway has the largest mercantile navy in the world.

STOCKHOLM (301) is the capital of Sweden. It occupies a highly picturesque situation at the entrance of Lake Mäelar, near the coast of the Baltic, and carries on a large trade with Germany and Russia.

Upsala (23), one of the most ancient of Swedish cities and the seat of a famous university, is to the north-west of the capital. Carlscrona (24), on the south coast, is the naval arsenal of the kingdom. Gothenburg, or Göteborg (131), at the outlet of the River Gota into the Kattegat, is the second city in Sweden in population, and the first in commercial importance. Malmö (61) in the extreme south, on the Sound, Norrköping (41), on the coast, to the south of Stockholm, and Gefle (30) north of the capital, are important manufacturing and trading centres. Dannemora, north of Upsala, is noted for its mines of iron one-the best in the world for the manufacture of steel.

CHRISTIANIA (228), the capital of Norway, lies at the head of a long fiord called by its name, and has an important university founded by the Danish Government in 1811. Christiania is not only the political capital of the country, but also the principal manufacturing and trading centre of the kingdom.

Bergen (72), on the west coast, is the second place in point of size, and is the chief station for the Norwegian Cod-fishery, and also a favourite tourist resort. Trondheim (38), farther to the northward, is an ancient city, the former capital of the country. Hammerfest, only a short way from the North Cape, possesses the distinction of being the most northerly town in Europe. Frederickshald, Charles XII. of Sweden was killed in 1718, whilst besieging its fortress. Stavanger (31) is an important port, and Drammen (23) is the outport for the Kongsberg mines.

RUSSIA.

At

RUSSIA is an empire of vast extent, embracing more than one-half the European continent, and considerably more than a third of Asia-the largest of all the continents."

BOUNDARIES: European Russia is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean; on the west by the Baltic Sea, Germany, and Austria-Hungary; on the south by Roumania, the Black Sea, the Caucasus, and the Caspian; on the east by Siberia and Russian Central Asia.

European Russia thus embraces the whole of Eastern Europe, from the Arctic Ocean to the Caspian and the Black Sea, and also the whole of Northern Europe east of the Baltic and the Gulf of Bothnia. The Ural Mountains mark the geographical boundary between Europe and Asia, but not between European and Asiatic Russia, except in the north. Politically, European Russia extends some distance east of the central and southern Urals.

EXTENT: European Russia is much larger than all other European countries taken together. Its area of 2,000,000 square miles* 1. Stockholm, "the isle of piles." Stockholm is | The Asiatic dominions of the Czar are separately partly built on islands, and is hence called the

Venice of the North."

described under "Asiatic Russia."

4. The Russian Empire has never been actually surveyed, but its area is officially estimated at 2,66,252 square miles, of which 2,095.504 square uiles are in Europe.

is nearly 35 times the area of England and Wales. In distance from north to south it measures upwards of 2,300 miles, and about 1,800 miles in the direction of east and west.

COASTS: Russia possesses a coast-line upon four inland seas, the Baltic, Black, Caspian, and White Seas, besides part of the shores of the Arctic Ocean. The total length of coast-line is estimated at 5,500 miles, of which 2,500 belong to the Arctic Ocean, and 1,000 to the Baltic.

The high latitude (and consequently cold climate) of the White Sea and the adjoining Arctic Ocean, limits their navigation to a short period in each year, during which alone they are free from ice. The same thing is the case, during Some months annually, with the Baltic Sea. The Baltic coasts are covered with ice for about five months in the year, and the Arctic coasts are similarly closed for about eight or nine months.

Both the Baltic and the Black Seas are nearly land-enclosed, only communicating with the ocean by narrow straits, which are in the keeping of other nations. The Caspian is merely a vast lake, without any outlet.

The Peninsula of the Crimea projects into the Black Sea, and is connected with the mainland by the Isthmus of Perekop. The Sea of Azov (13,000 square miles) is an arm of the Black Sea, from which it is entered through the Strait of Kertch or Yenikale. The Gulf of Finland is an arm of the Baltic, and is 260 miles long, and from 25 to 90 miles broad. The Gulf of Bothnia lies between Sweden and Russia.

ISLANDS: Vaigatz, Nova Zembla, and Spitzbergen, in the Arctic Ocean; Aland, Dago, and Esel, in the Baltic; and several small islands in the Caspian Sea.

None of the islands in the Arctic Ocean are permanently inhabited, except Vaigatz, which is occupied by a few Samoyedes, but they are nevertheless valuable as hunting and fishing stations. The Nova Zembla group lies north of Vaigatz, from which it is separated by the Strait of Kara. A remarkably deep inlet, called the Matyushin Shar, extends right across the main island. Spitzbergen is the name of a group of islands in the Arctic Ocean, between 76° and 81° N. lat., and 11° and 23° E. long., all of which are more or less mountainous, and for the most part covered with enormous glaciers and snowdrifts. Both Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla have acquired additional interest in connection with the expeditions to the Polar Seas-the latter more especially in connection with the discovery of the North-East Passage by Nordenskiöld, and the various, and partially successful, attempts to open up communication by sea with the great Siberian rivers. The Aland Islands, about 80 of which are inhabited, are important from their position near the entrances of the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, but the principal fortress, Bomarsund, was destroyed by the combined English and French fleets in 1854.

SURFACE: Russia exhibits a succession of immense and nearly level plains, which slope gradually towards the Baltic, Black, Caspian, and White Seas.

The Steppes: The most perfectly level of the plains of Russia are in the south-easterly division of the country, where they are called Steppes. The

steppe is an open plain, without trees, and generally without any perennial streams. Its surface during the dry season of the year (the period of summer and autumn) is parched, arid, and often sandy, the vegetation burned up by the intense heat; but at other times it exhibits a luxuriant expanse of grass, upon which the inhabitants pasture immense herds of horses and cattle. The lowest portions of the steppe-land are towards the Caspian Sea, where the soil is often impregnated with saline particles, and salt-water lakes are numerous.

MOUNTAINS: The only mountains belonging to European Russia are the Urals on the eastern, the Caucasus on part of the southern border-line, and the Valdai Hills in the centre.

The Ural Mountains extend for 1,200 miles, from the shores of the Sea of Kara on the north, to the River Ural, near Orenburg, on the south. The main chain is flanked on either side by minor ranges, which are closer together and less numerous in the north than in the south, where the entire width is upwards of 100 miles. The average height is between 2,000 and 2,500 feet, but the highest point, Yaman Tau, attains an elevation of 5,400 feet.

The chain of the Caucasus (700 miles long), between the Black Sea and the Caspian, has an average elevation of from 8,000 to 9,000 feet, and culminates in Mount Elbrus (18,571). The height of the snow-line varies from 9,600 to 12,200 feet, while the limit of vegetation is about 9,000 feet. Of the few passes the principal is that of Dariel, on the eastern side of Mount Kasbek.

The Valdai Hills, although their mean height does not exceed 1,000 feet, are yet important as forming the great water-parting of Russia. They contain the sources of the Dwina and Volga. The Volga rises at a point only 633 feet above the level of the Caspian, into which it flows.

RIVERS: The rivers of Russia are naturally divisible into four sections, according to the maritime basins they belong to. From the central watershed the country slopes north towards the Arctic Ocean, west towards the Baltic, south towards the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, and south-east towards the Caspian.

The Arctic Section includes the Petchora, which enters the Arctic Ocean, and the Northern Dwina, the Mezen, and the Onega, which flow into the White Sea. The Baltic Section includes the Neva, Western Dwina, Niemen, and Vistula. The Black Sea Section includes the Dniester, Bug, and Dnieper, and also the Don, which flows into the Sea of Azov.

The Caspian Section includes the Volga and the Ural.

Of these rivers, the most important are the following:

The Petchora (900 miles), which rises in the Ural Mountains, is the only large European river that falls directly into the Arctic Ocean. The Northern Dwina has a navigable course of upwards of 700 miles, and is connected by canals with the Neva and the Volga. At its mouth is the port of ARCHANGEL.

The Neva (40 miles long) is the outlet for the great lakes, and has ST. PETERSBURG, the capital of the Russian Empire, at its mouth. It is connected by canals with the Volga, and is frozen over for five months of the year. The Southern Dwina and Niemen have each a navigable course of about 500 miles. Part of the lower course of the Niemen is in Prussia. Only the "middle" course of the Vistula is within Russia.

The Dniester (700 miles) and Dnieper (1,200 miles) are navigable through the greater part of their courses. The Don (1,100 miles) is navigable only during a part of the year.

The Volga, 2,200 miles in length, is the longest of European rivers.' It rises in the Valdai Hills, and enters the Caspian by numerous mouths, draining with its tributaries (the Oka, Kama, Moskva, &c.) nearly a seventh of Europe. During the winter it is frozen over, but in summer it is extensively navigated. Steam navigation is limited to its lower and middle course, between ASTRAKHAN, near its mouth, and TVER, 1,650 miles above Astrakhan. Smaller craft and barges ascend the river nearly to its source. This great river is connected by canals with the Dwina, Neva, &c. The Ural (which forms one of the natural boundaries between Europe and Asia) has a course of 1,150 miles, and is navigable for small vessels."

LAKES: The two largest are Ladoga and Onega; the other principal lakes are Saima, Peipus, Enara, Bieloe, and Ilmen. All these are in the north-western part of the country, most of them situated near the Baltic Sea. There are some shallow salt-water lakes in the Steppes-the largest of them is Lake Elton, situated between the lower courses of the Volga and the River Ural.

Ladoga (6,330 square miles) is the largest lake in Europe. It is drained by the Neva, and connected with Lake Onega (3,280 square miles) by the Svir. Both are shallow, and their navigation is further impeded by rocks and quicksands. Peipus (or Tchouds Koe) has an area of 1,250 square miles, and is drained by the Narva. Saima is extremely irregular, and is by far the largest sheet of water in Finland, its area being probably 2,000 square miles. Elton is the saltest.lake in Europe, and yields annually above 100,000 tons of salt.

CLIMATE: Russia has great variety of climate, owing to its extensive range of latitude." Its northern part is cold compared with the climate of England, but towards the south it becomes

warmer.

The Russian winters are very long and severe, while the summers are intensely hot. These extremes of heat and cold are experienced throughout Russia, but more so within the Steppe-region than elsewhere.

The severity of Russian winters may be inferred from the fact that most of the rivers are for several months covered with ice of great thickness. The White Sea in the north is always, and the Sea of Azov in the south occasionally, frozen over in winter.

PRODUCTIONS: The forests, which still cover more than onethird of Russia, furnish some of its most valuable productions— timber, tar, pitch, turpentine, and potash. Its mines of iron and platinum, within the district of the Ural, are also of high value. Copper, salt, marble, coal, and gold are also found.

The reindeer and polar bear are found in the north, the common bear, wolf, &c., in the large forests. Vast numbers of fur-bearing animals-beaver, sable,

1. The Volga is ten times longer than the Thames, and rather more than nine and a half times longer than the Shannon-the longest river in the British Islands.

2. From 40° to 70° N. Lat., that is, from the latitude of Southern Italy to the extreme north of Norway.