CROISADE, or CRUSADE, may be applied to any war undertaken on pretence of defending the cause of religion, | but has been chiefly used for the expeditions of the Christians against the infidels for the conquest of Palestine. As decrees, and his revealed will in his co- rendered his schemes so suspicious, that venant and promises. The root of his he was not able to make great progress error seems to be this: he viewed the in his undertaking. The work was reanion between Christ and the believer served for a meaner instrument. Peter, to be of such a kind as actually to make || commonly called the Hermit, a native a Saviour of the sinner, and a sinner of of Amiens in Picardy, had made the the Saviour. He speaks as if God con- pilgrimage to Jerusalem; and being sidered the sinner as doing and suffering deeply affected with the dangers to what Christ did and suffered; and Christ which that act of piety now exposed as having committed their sins, and as the pilgrims, as well as with the opbeing actually guilty of them. See book pression under which the eastern Chrisunder articles ANTINOMIANS and NEO- tians now laboured, formed the bold, NOMIANS. Crisp's Sermons, edited by and, in all appearance, impracticable Dr. Gill; Bogue and Bennet's History design of leading into Asia, from the of Dissenters, vol. i. p. 400. farthest extremities of the West, armies sufficient to subdue those potent and warlike nations that now held the holy land in slavery. He proposed his scheme to pope Martin II. who, prudently resolving not to interpose his authority till he saw a probability of success, summoned at Placentia a council of 4000 ecclesiastics and 30,000 seculars. no hall could be found large enough to contain such a multitude, the assembly was held in a plain. Here the pope himself, as well as Peter harangued the people, representing the dismal situation of their brethren in the East, and the indignity offered to the Christian name in allowing the holy city to remain in the hands of the infidels. These speeches were so agreeable to those who heard them, that the whole multitude suddenly and violently declared for the war, and solemnly devoted themselves to perform this service, which they believed to be meritorious in the sight of God. But though Italy seemed to have embraced the design with ardour, Martin thought it necessary, in order to obtain perfect success, to engage the greater and more warlike nations in the same enterprise. Having, therefore, exhorted Peter to visit the chief cities and sovereigns of Christendom, he summoned another council at Clermont in Auvergne. The fame of this great and pious design being now universally diffused, procured the attendance of the greatest prelates, nobles, and princes; and when the pope and the hermit renewed their pathetic exhortations, the whole assembly, as if impelled by immediate inspiration, exclaimed with one voice, "It is the will of God!" These words were deemed so much the effect of a divine impulse, that they were employed as the signal of rendezvous and battle in all future exploits of these adventurers. Men of all ranks now flew to arms with the utmost ardour, and a cross was affixed to their right shoulder by all who enlisted in this holy enterprise. At this time These expeditions commenced A. D. 1096. The foundation of them was a superstitious veneration for those places where our Saviour performed his miracles, and accomplished the work of man's redemption. Jerusalem had been taken and Palestine conquered by Omar. This proved a considerable interruption to the pilgrims, who flocked from all quarters to perform their devotions at the holy sepulchre. They had, however, still been allowed this liberty, on paying a small tribute to the Saracen caliphs, who were not much inclined to molest them. But, in 1064, this city changed its masters. The Turks took it from the Saracens; and being much more fierce and barbarous, the pilgrims now found they could no longer perform their devotions with the same safety. An opinion was about this time also prevalent in Europe, which made these pilgrimages much more frequent than formerly: it was imagined, that the 1000 years mentioned in Rev. xx. were fulfilled; that Christ was soon to make his appearance in Palestine to judge the world; and consequently that journeys to that country were in the highest degree meritorious, and even absolutely necessary. The multitudes of pilgrims who now flocked to Palestine meeting with a very rough reception from the Turks, filled all Europe with complaints against those infidels, who profaned the holy city, and derided the sacred mysteries of Christianity even in the place where they were fulfilled. Pope Gregory VII. had formed a design of uniting all the princes of Christendom against the Mahometans; but his exorbitant encroachments upon the civil power of princes had created him so many enemies, and Europe was sunk in the most profound committed by men inured to wickedignorance and superstition. The eccle- ness, encouraged by example, and imsiastics had gained the greatest ascend- pelled by necessity. The adventurers ant over the human mind; and the were at last so numerous, that their sapeople who committed the most horrid gacious leaders became apprehensive crimes and disorders, knew of no other lest the greatness of the armament expiation than the observances imposed would be the cause of its own disapon them by their spiritual pastors. But pointment. For this reason they peramidst the abject superstition which mitted an undisciplined multitude, comnow prevailed, the military spirit had puted at 300,000 men, to go before them also universally diffused itself; and, under the_command of Peter the herthough not supported by art or disci- mit, and Gautier or Walter, surnamed pline, was become the general passion the moneyless, from his being a soldier of the nations governed by the feudal of fortune. These took the road towards law. All the great lords possessed the Constantinople through Hungary and right of peace and war. They were Bulgaria; and trusting that heaven, by engaged in continual hostilities with one supernatural assistance, would supply another: the open country was become all their necessities, they made no proa scene of outrage and disorder: the vision for subsistence in their march. cities, still mean and poor, were neither They soon found themselves obliged to guarded by walls nor protected by pri- obtain by plunder what they vainly exvileges. Every man was obliged to de-pected from miracles: and the enraged pend for safety on his own force, or his inhabitants of the countries through private alliances; and valour was the which they passed attacked the disoronly excellence which was held in es- derly multitude, and slaughtered them teem, or gave one man the pre-eminence without resistance. The more discipliabove another. When all the particu- ned armies followed after; and, passing lar superstitions, therefore, were here the straits of Constantinople, were musunited in one great object, the ardour tered in the plains of Asia, and amountfor private hostilities took the same di-ed in the whole to 700,000 men. The rection; and all Europe," as the princess Anna Comnena expresses it, "torn from its foundations, seemed ready to precipitate itself in one united body upon Asia." 66 princes engaged in this first crusade were. Hugo, count of Vermandois, brother to Philip I. king, of France; Robert, duke of Normandy; Robert, earl of Flanders; Raimond, earl of Toulouse All ranks of men now deeming the and St. Giles; the celebrated Godfrey croisades the only road to heaven, were of Bouillon, duke of Lorrain, with his impatient to open the way with their brothers Baldwin and Eustace; Steswords to the holy city. Nobles, arti- || phen, earl of Chartres and Blois; Hugo, sans, peasants, even priests, enrolled count of St. Paul; with many other their names; and to decline this ser- lords. The general rendezvous was at vice was branded with the reproach of Constantinople. In this expedition, Godimpiety or cowardice. The nobles were frey besieged and took the city of Nice. moved by the romantic spirit of the Jerusalem was taken by the confederaage, to hope for opulent establishments ted army, and Godfrey chosen king. in the East, the chief seat of arts and The Christians gained the famous batcommerce at that time. In pursuit of tle of Ascalon against the Sultan of these chimerical projects, they sold at Egypt, which put an end to the first low prices their ancient castles and in- || crusade, but not to the spirit of crusadheritances, which had now lost all value ing. The rage continued for near two in their eyes. The infirm and aged con- centuries. The second crusade, in 1144, tributed to the expedition by presents was headed by the emperor Conrad III. and money, and many of them attended and Louis VII. king of France. The it in person; being determined, if possi- emperor's army was either destroyed ble to breathe their last in sight of that by the enemy, or perished through the city where their Saviour died for them. treachery of Manuel, the Greek empeEven women, concealing their sex un- ror; and the second army, through the der the disguise of armour, attended the unfaithfulness of the Christians of Syria, camp; and often forgot their duty still was forced to break up the siege of Damore, by prostituting themselves to the mascus. The third crusade, in 1188, imarmy. The greatest criminals were for-mediately followed the taking of Jeru ward in a service which they considered as an expiation for all crimes; and the most enormous disorders were, during the course of these expeditions, salem by Saladin, the sultan of Egypt. The princes engaged in this expedition were, the emperor Frederic Barbarossa; Frederic, duke of Suabia, his second son; Leopold duke of Austria; Ber- serably butchered, and himself and the nobility taken prisoners. A truce was agreed upon for ten years, and the king and lords set at liberty. The eighth croisade, in 1279, was headed by the same prince, who made himself master of the port and castle of Carthage in Africa; but dying a short time after, he eft his army in a very ill condition. Soon after, the king of Sicily coming up with a good fleet, and joining Philip the bold, son and successor of Lewis, the king of Tunis, after several engagements with the Christians, in which he was always worsted, desired peace, which was granted upon conditions advantageous to the Christians; after which both princes embarked to their own kingdoms. Prince Edward. of England, who arrived at Tunis at the time of this treaty, sailed towards Ptolemais, where he landed a small body of 300 English and French, and hindered Bendochar from laving siege to Ptolemais: but being obliged to return to take possession of the crown of England, this croisade ended without contributing any thing to the recovery of the holy land. In 1291, the town of Acre or Ptolemais was taken and plundered by the sultan of Egypt, and the Christians quite driven out of Syria. There has been no croisade since that period, though several popes have attempted to stir up the Christians to such an undertaking; particularly Nicholas IV. in 1292, and Clement V. in 1311. Though these croisades were effects of the most absurd superstition, they tended greatly to promote the good of Europe. Multitudes, indeed, were destroyed. M. Voltaire computes the people who perished in the different expeditions at upwards of two millions. Many there were, however, who returned; and these having conversed se long with people who lived in a much more magnificent way than themselves, began to entertain some taste for a refined and polished way of life. Thus the barbarism in which Europe had been so long immersed began to wear off soon after. The princes also who remained at home, found means to avail themselves of the frenzy of the people. By the absence of such numbers of restless and martial adventurers, peace was established in their dominions. They also took the opportunity of annexing to their crowns many considerable fiefs, either by purchase, or the extinction of the heirs; and thus the mischiefs which must always attend feudal governments were considerably lessened. With regard to the bad sue they see their parents engaged in, Their childish folly was encouraged by the monks and schoolmasters; and thousands of those innocents were conducted from the houses of their parents on the superstitious interpretation of these words: "Out of the mouths of babes and sucklings hast thou perf fected praise." Their base conductors sold a part of them to the Turks, and the rest perished miserably. Hume's Hist. of England, vol. i. p. 292, &c. and vol. ii, p. 280; Enc. Brit. and Mosheim's Ecc. Hist. CROISIERS, a religious order, founded in honour of the invention or discovery of the cross by the empress Helena. They were, till of late, dispersed in several parts of Europe, particularly in the Low Countries, France, and Bohemia; those of Italy were suppressed even before the late revolutions These religious follow the rule of St. Augustine. They had in England the name of Crouched Friars. cess of the croisaders, it was scarcely possible that any other thing could happen to them. The emperors of Constantinople, instead of assisting, did all in their power to disconcert their schemes: they were jealous, and not without reason, of such an inundation of barbarians. Yet, had they considered their true interest, they would rather have assisted them, or at least stood neuter, than enter into alliances with the Turks. They followed the latter method, however, and were often of very great disservice to the western adventurers, which at last occasioned the loss of their city. But the worst enemies the croisaders had were their own internal feuds and dissentions. They neither could agree while marching together in armies with a view to conquest, nor could they unite their conquests under one government after they had made them. They set up three small states, one at Jerusalem, another at Antioch and another at Edessa. These states, instead of assisting, made war upon CROSIER, or CROZIER, a shepherd's each other, and on the Greek empe- crook; a symbol of pastoral authority, rors; and thus became an easy prey to consisting of a gold or silver staff, crookthe common enemy. The horrid cruel- ed at the top, carried occasionally boties they committed, too, must have fore bishops and abbots, and held in the inspired the Turks with the most in-hand when they give the solemn benevincible hatred against them, and made | dictions. them resist with the greatest obstinacy. They were such as could have been committed only by barbarians inflamed with the most bigotted enthusiasm. When Jerusalem was taken, not only the numerous garrisons were put to the sword, but the inhabitants were massacred without mercy and without distinction. No age or sex was spared, not even sucking children. According to Voltaire, some Christians, who had been suffered by the Turks to live in that city, led the conquerors into the most private caves, where women had concealed themselves with their children, and not one of them was suffered to escape. What eminently shews the enthusiasm by which these conquerors were animated, is, their behaviour after this terrible slaughter. They marched over heaps of dead bodies towards the holy sepulchre; and while their hands were polluted with the blood of so many | innocent persons, sung anthems to the common Saviour of Mankind! Nay, so far did their religious enthusiasm overcome their fury, that these ferocious conquerors now burst into tears. If the absurdity and wickedness of their conduct can be exceeded by any thing, it must be by what follows. In 1204, the frenzy of croisading seized the children, who are ever ready to imitate what CROSS, in Scripture language, means the sufferings of Christ, Gal. vi. 14. The sufferings, trials, or persecutions of the people are also called a cross, Matt. xvi. 24. Cross signifies also a gibbet, made with two pieces of wood, placed crosswise, whether they cross with right angles at the top like a T, or in the middle of their length like an X. The cross to which our Saviour was fastened, and on which he died, was of the former kind; being thus represented by old monuments, coins, and crosses. The death of the cross was the most dreadful of all others, both for the shame and pain of it; and so scandalous, that it was inflicted as the last mark of detestation upon the vilest of people. It was the punishment of robbers and murderers, provided that they were slaves too; but otherwise, if they were free, and had the privilege of the city of Rome, this was then thought a prostitution of that honour, and too infamous a punishment for such a one, let his crimes be what they would. The form of a cross being such as has been already described, the body of the criminal was fastened to the upright piece by nailing the feet to it, and on the other transverse piece generally by nailing the hands on each side. Now, because these parts of the body, being R the instruments of action and motion, are provided by Nature with a much greater quantity of nerves than others have occasion for; and because all sensation is performed by the spirit contained in the nerves; it will follow, as Stanhope observes, that wherever they abound, the sense of pain must needs in proportion be more quick and tender. The Jews confess, indeed, that they crucified people in their nation, but deny that they inflicted this punishment upon any one alive. They first put them to death, and then fastened them to the cross, either by the hands or neck. But there are indisputable proofs of their crucifying men frequently alive. The worshippers of Baal-peor, and the king of Ai were hung up alive; as were also the descendants of Saul, who were put into the hands of the Gibeonites, 2 Sam. xxi. 9. sometimes with three. The criminal was fixed to the cross quite naked; and, in all probability, the Saviour of sinners was not used with any greater tenderness than others upon whom this punishment was inflicted. The text of the Gospel shows clearly that Jesus Christ was fastened to the cross with nails; and the Psalmist (Ps. xxii. 16.) had foretold long before, that they should pierce his hands and his feet; but there are great disputes concerning the number of these nails. The Greeks represent our Saviour as fastened to the cross with four nails; in which particular Gregory of Tours agrees with them, one on each hand and foot. But several are of opinion that our Saviour's hands and feet were pierced with three nails only, viz. one on each hand, and one through both his feet: and the custom of the Latins is rather for this last opinion; for the generality of the old crucifixes made in the Latin church have only three nails. Nonnus thinks that our Saviour's arms were besides bound fast to the cross with chains; and St. Hilary speaks of the cords wherewith he was tied to it. Sometimes they who were fastened upon the cross lived a good while in that condition. St. Andrew is believed to have continued three days alive upon it. Eusebius speaks of certain martyrs in Egypt who were kept upon the cross till they were starved to death. Pilate was amazed at Jesus Christ's dying so soon, because natural not been in his power to have laid down his life, and to take it up again. The thighs of the two thieves, who were crucified with our Saviour, were broken, in order to hasten their death, that their bodies might not remain upon the cross on the Sabbath day, John, xix. 31, 33; and to comply with the law of Moses, which forbids the bodies to be left there Before crucifixion, the criminal was generally scourged with cords; sometimes little bones, or pieces of bones, were tied to these scourges, so that the condemned person might suffer more severely. It was also a custom, that he who was to be crucified should bear his own cross to the place of execution. After this manner, we find Christ was compelled to bear his cross; and as he sunk under the burden, Simon the Cyrenian was constrained to bear it after him and with him. But whereas it is generally supposed that our Lord bore the whole cross, i. e. the long and transverse part both, this seems to be a thingly he must have lived longer, if it had impossible; and therefore Lipsius (in his treatise De Supplicio Crucis) has set the matter in a true light, when he tells us that Jesus only carried the transverse beam; because the long beam, or the body of the cross, was either fixed in the ground before, or made ready to be set up as soon as the prisoner came; and from hence he observes, that painters are very much mistaken in their description of our Saviour carrying the whole cross. There were several ways of crucifying; sometimes the criminal was fastened with cords to a tree, sometimes he was crucified with his head downwards. way, it is said, Peter chose, out of respect to his master, Jesus Christ, not thinking himself worthy to be crucified like him though the common way of crucifying was by fastening the criminal with nails, one through each hand, and one through both feet, or one through each of them; for this was not always performed in the same manner; the ancients sometimes represent Jesus Christ crucified with four nails, and This after sun-set. But, among other nations, they were suffered to remain upon the cross a long time. Sometimes they were devoured alive by birds and beasts of prey. Guards were appointed to observe that none of their friends or relations should take them down and bury them. The Roman soldiers, who had crucified Jesus Christ and the two thieves, continued near the crosses till the bodies were taken down and buried. Invention of the Cross, an ancient feast solemnized on the 3d of May, in memory of St. Helena's (the mother of Constantine) finding the true cross of Christ deep in the ground on Mount Calvary, where she erected a church for the preservation of part of it; the |