changed since the war. All hereditary privileges are forbidden. Liberty of the press, the free right of all citizens to the possession of arins, and the free right of assembly are guaranteed. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 40, and a House of Representatives of 240 members, both elected by the people. The Governor has a veto, unless overruled by a two-thirds vote in each House. Office-holders are not allowed to sit in the Legislature. The Executive power is vested in an elected Governor and an Executive Council of eight persons whose advice is necessary for the doing of certain things. Judges and other judicial officers are appointed by the Governor and Council. The Judges are to hold during good behaviour, unless it is otherwise prescribed by law. The Justices of the Peace are appointed for seven years, and are eligible for reappointment. The University of Harvard is established and endowed by the Constitution, and there is a general provision enjoining the encouragement of education. No moneys raised for education are to be given to any particular religious sect. VIRGINIA. Every edition of the Constitution of Virginia, including the last now in force, commences with the old recital of grievances on account of the detestable and insupportable tyranny' of George III., who had sought to destroy the liberties of the people in many ways, and among others by prompting our negroes to rise in arms among us-those very negroes whom by an inhuman use of his negative he had refused us permission to exclude by law; by endeavouring to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages,' and so on. Then comes the Bill of Rights, consisting of seventeen articles adopted in 1776 and five more added since the civil war. Most of the State Constitutions seem to retain the Bill of Rights, in a more or less modernised form, as a sort of inner kernel of the Constitution. Here is the present Virginian Bill of Rights, which retains the old articles and language. The modern portions are printed in italics: BILL OF RIGHTS. A Declaration of Rights, made by the Representatives of the good people of Virginia, assembled in full and free Convention, which rights do pertain to them and their posterity, us the basis and foundation of government. 1. That all men are by nature equally free and independent, and have certain inherent rights, of which, when they enter into a state of society, they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety. 2. That this State shall ever remain a member of the United States of America, and that the people thereof are part of the American nation, and that all attempts, from whatever source or upon whatever pretext, to dissolve said Union or to sever said nation, are unauthorised, and ought to be resisted with the whole power of the State. 3. That the Constitution of the United States, and laws of Congress passed in pursuance thereof, constitute the supreme law of the land, to which paramount allegiance and obedience are due from every citizen, anything in the Constitution, ordinances, or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 4. That all power is vested in, and consequently derived from, the people; that magistrates are their trustees and servants, and at all times amenable to them. 5. That government is, or ought to be, instituted for the common benefit, protection, and security of the people, nation, or community; of all the various modes and forms of government, that is best which is capable of producing the greatest degree of happiness and safety, and is most effectually secured against the danger of maladministration; and that when any government shall be found inadequate or contrary to these purposes, a majority of the community hath an indubitable, inalienable, and indefeasible right to reform, alter, or abolish it, in such a manner as shall be judged most conducive to the public weal. 6. That no man, or set of men, are entitled to exclusive or separate emoluments or privileges from the community but in consideration of public services; which, not being descendible, neither ought the offices of magistrate, legislator, or judge to be hereditary. 7. That the legislative, executive, and judicial powers should be separate and distinct; and that the members thereof may be restrained from oppression, by feeling and participating the burthens of the people, they should, at fixed periods, be reduced to a private station, return into that body from which they were originally taken, and the vacancies be supplied by frequent, certain, and regular elections, in which all or any part of the former members to be again eligible or ineligible, as the laws shall direct. 8. That all elections ought to be free, and that all men, having sufficient evidence of permanent common interest with, and attachment to, the community, have the right of suffrage, and cannot be taxed or deprived of their property for public uses, without their own consent, or that of their representatives so elected, nor bound by any law to which they have not in like manner assented for the public good. 9. That all power of suspending laws, or the execution of laws, by any authority, without consent of the representatives of the people, is injurious to their rights and not to be exercised. 10. That, in all capital or criminal prosecutions, a man hath a right to demand the cause and nature of his accusation, to be confronted with the accusers and witnesses, to call for evidence in his favour, and to a speedy trial by an impartial jury of his vicinage, without whose unanimous consent he cannot be found guilty; nor can he be compelled to give evidence against himself; that no man be deprived of his liberty, except by the law of the land or the judgment of his peers. 11. That excessive bail ought not to be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishment inflicted. 12. That general warrants, whereby an officer or messenger may be commanded to search suspected places without evidence of a fact committed, or to seize any person or persons not named, or whose offence is not particularly described and supported by evidence, are grievous and oppressive, and ought not to be granted. 13. That in controversies respecting property, and in suits between man and man, the trial by jury is preferable to any other, and ought to be held sacred. 14. That the freedom of the press is one of the great bulwarks of liberty, and can never be restrained but by despotic governments, and any citizen may speak, write, and publish his sentiments on all subjects, being responsible for the abuse of that liberty. 15. That a well-regulated militia, composed of the body of the people trained to arms, is the proper, natural, and safe defence of a free state; that standing armies, in time of peace, should be avoided as dangerous to liberty, and that in all cases the military should be under strict subordination to, and governed by, the civil power. 16. That the people have a right to uniform government; and, therefore, that no government separate from, or independent of, the Government of Virginia ought to be erected or established within the limits thereof. 17. That no free government, or the blessings of liberty, can be preserved to any people but by a firm adherence to justice, moderation, temperance, and virtue, and by a frequent recurrence to fundamental principles. 18. That religion, or the duty which we owe to our Creator, and the manner of discharging it, can be directed only by reason and conviction, not by force or violence; and, therefore, all men are equally entitled to the free exercise of religion according to the dictates of conscience; and that it is the mutual duty of all to practise Christian forbearance, love, and charity towards each other. 19. That neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as lawful imprisonment may constitute such, shall exist within this State. 20. That all citizens of the State are hereby declared to possess equal civil and political rights and public privileges. 21. The rights enumerated in this Bill of Rights shall not be construed to limit other rights of the people not therein expressed. The declaration of the political rights and privileges of the inhabitants of this State is hereby declared to be a part of the Constitution of this Commonwealth, and shall not be violated on any pretence whatever. Up to 1850 the franchise was confined to whites, with a property qualification. In 1850 the property qualification was given up, and all adult white males obtained the franchise. By provisions added in the same year no emancipated negroes were permitted to remain in the State; or, if they did, they were liable to be again reduced to slavery. The Legislature was for ever forbidden to emancipate any slave, or the descendant of any slave; and it was empowered to restrict by law the power of individuals to emancipate slaves. By the post-War Constitution, put in force in 1870, all disqualifications of negroes are swept away-the franchise is given to all classes, without any property or other qualification. But there is in this and other Southern States a provision disqualifying all persons convicted of fighting a duel from voting or holding office; besides the disqualification to The vote of all persons convicted of felony or petit larceny. Governor and Lieutenant-Governor are elected by the people for four years; but the Secretary of the Commonwealth, Treasurer, and Auditor are elected by joint vote of the two Houses. The Senators and Delegates (members of the Lower House) are elected for four and two years respectively. The Legislature meets once in two years, and remains in session not more than ninety days, unless it is extended, by a threefifths vote, for not more than thirty days longer. That is the utmost limit. The Judges are elected by joint vote of the Houses of the Legislature for twelve, eight, and six years, according to the class of Judge. The county and city officers, i. e. Sheriff, Mayor, Attorney for the Commonwealth, County Clerk, County Treasurer, and so many County Commissioners of Revenue as may be provided by law, are elected by the people for four or six years; and all city, town, and village officers not specially provided for are to be similarly elected. Counties are divided into magisterial districts, each of which is to have three justices of the peace, a constable, and an overseer of the poor, elected for two years. There is now a regular provision for education. Each magisterial district is divided into school districts. The Legislature is required to provide a uniform system of free public schools, to be complete by the year 1876, and is authorised to make such laws as shall not permit parents and guardians to allow their children to grow up in ignorance and vagrancy. There is to be a literary fund, made up of the proceeds of all forfeited or waste lands, a capitation tax, and an annual tax on all property, of not less than one, or more than five, mills, in the dollar (that is, on the capital value). The militia consists of all able-bodied men; but only volunteer corps are classed as 'active militia,' the rest as reserved militia.' Taxation is to be equally imposed on all property, and a tax may be imposed on incomes in excess of $600, and on licenses for the sale of ardent spirits, theatrical and circus companies, menageries and other shows, itinerant pedlers, commission merchants, brokers, and on all other business which cannot be reached by the ad valorem system. All public, charitable, religious, and educational property may be exempted from the property-tax. A curious instance of the way in which minor matters |