CAINOZOIC

ing of Abel symbolized the defeat of the inferior by the superior power.

Cainozo'ic, a geological term (from Gr. kainos, recent, and zoe, life) applied to the latest of the three divisions into which strata have been arranged, with reference to the age of the fossils they include. The Cainozoic system embraces the tertiary and posttertiary systems of British geologists, exhibiting recent forms of life, in contradistinction to the Mesozoic, exhibiting inter

CAIRO.

mediate, and the Paleozoic, ancient and extinct, forms. It corresponds nearly with what has been called the age of mammals. Written also Cenozoic, Kainozoic.

Caique (ka-ek'), a small skiff or rowing boat; especially a light skiff used in the Bosporus, where it almost monopolizes the boat traffic. It may have from one to ten or twelve rowers. The name is also given to a Levantine vessel of a larger size. Ça-ira (sä e-ra: 'It [the revolution] shall

go on'), the burden or refrain of a French revolutionary song of 1790. The air was a favourite one with Marie Antoinette.

Caird, JOHN, Scottish divine, born 1820, professor of divinity in Glasgow university 1862, principal of the university since 1873. He has published sermons (The Religion of Common Life being the best known), and an Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion (1880). His brother EDWARD has been professor of moral philosophy at Glasgow since 1866, and has published Account of the Philosophy of Kant; The Social Philosophy and Religion of Comte, and a book on Hegel.

Cairn (kārn), a heap of stones; especially one of those large heaps of stones common in Great Britain, particularly in Scotland and Wales, and generally of a conical form. They are of various sizes, and were probably constructed for different objects. Some are evidently sepulchral, containing urns, stone chests, bones, &c. Some were erected to commemorate some great event, others ap

pear to have been intended for religious rites, while the modern cairn is generally set up as a landmark.

Cairnes (kernz), JOHN ELLIOT, political economist, born at Drogheda 1824, died 1875. He was successively professor of political economy in Dublin, Galway, and London. Chief works, Character and Logical Method of Political Economy; Political Essays; Leading Principles of Political Economy, &c.

Cairngorm, a Scottish mountain forming one of a great group of the Grampians on the borders of Aberdeen, Banff, and Inverness shires, and rising to the height of 4084 feet above sea-level. It is particularly celebrated for the brownish or yellowish quartz crystals found on it, called cairngorms. They are regular hexagonal crystals, with a

pyramidal top, and are much used for brooches, seals, and other ornaments.

Cairo (ki'rō; Arab. Kahira, the Victorious), the capital of Modern Egypt, is situated on the right bank of the Nile, 12 miles above the apex of its delta, and 150 miles by rail

CAIRO

from Alexandria. The character of the town is still mainly Arabic, though in modern times the European style in architecture and other matters has become more and more prevalent. The city is partly surrounded by a fortified wall, and is intersected by seven or eight great streets, from which run a labyrinth of narrow crooked streets and lanes. There are several large squares or places, the principal being the Ezbekiyeh. To the south-east of the town is the citadel, on the last spur of the Mokattam Hills, overlooking the city. It contains the fine mosque of Mohammed Ali, a well 270 feet deep called Joseph's Well, cut in the rock, the palace of the viceroy &c. There are upwards of 400 mosques. The finest is that of Sultan Hassan. There are also some forty Christian churches, Jewish synagogues, &c. The tombs in the burying-grounds outside the city also deserve mention, especially those known as the tombs of the Caliphs. The trade of Cairo is large, and the bazaars and markets are numerous. Of these the Khan el Khalili, in the north-east of the town, consists of a series of covered streets and courts in which all kinds of eastern merchandise are displayed in open stalls. Cairo has railway communication with Alexandria, Suez, and Siout. It was occupied by the British, Sept. 1882. Pop. 374,838.

Cairo (kā'ro), a river-port of the United States, in Illinois, at the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi. Pop. 12,566.

Cais'son. In civil engin. (a) a vessel in the form of a boat used as a flood-gate in docks. (b) An apparatus on which vessels may be raised and floated; especially a kind of floating-dock, which may be sunk and floated under a vessel's keel, used for docking vessels while at their moorings, without removing stores or masts. (c) A watertight box or casing used in founding and building structures in water too deep for the coffer-dam, such as piers of bridges, quays, &c.

Caith'ness, a county occupying the extreme north-east of the mainland of Scotland; area, 438,878 acres, of which about a fourth is under crop. The surface is generally moory and bare; it is watered by numerous small streams. The coast is rocky, and remarkable for bays and promontories, including among the latter, Dunnet-head, Duncansby-head, and Noss head. Fishing, together with the rearing of sheep and cattle, forms the principal employment of

CALABAR.

the inhabitants. Flagstones (Caithness flags) for pavement are extensively quarried. The towns are Wick, the county town, and Thurso. Caithness gives the title of earl to the head of the Sinclair family. It returns one member to Parliament. Pop. 37,161.

Caius (kez), KEY, or KAYE, DR. JOHN, English physician, born at Norwich in 1510, died 1573. He was successively first physician to Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. Having obtained permission to erect Gonville Hall, at Cambridge, into the college which still bears his name (Gonville and Caius College), he accepted the mastership and retired from public life, when he appears to have assiduously devoted himself to literary labours connected with his profession.

Caivano (ki-vä'nō), a town of S. Italy, about 9 m. north of Naples. Pop.10,832. Cajamarca (kä-ha-mär'ka). See Caxa

marca.

Caj'eput, or CAJUPUT, the name of several trees, genus Melaleuca, order Myrtaceæ, natives of the East Indies and Australia. See next article.

Caj'eput Oil, the volatile oil obtained from the leaves of the cajeput-tree (Melaleuca Cajuputi), a native of the Indian Archipelago, and some parts of Australia, or from others of the same genus. It is used in medicine as a carminative, stimulant, sudorific, and antispasmodic; also externally in chronic rheumatism, and has been used as a cure for cholera.

Caj'etan (or ka ́ye-tan), THOMAS DA VIO, CARDINAL, born 1469, died 1534, takes his name of Cajetan from the Italian town of Gaeta, in which he was born. When only fifteen years of age he became a Dominican monk, and in 1508 general of his order. In 1517 he was made a cardinal by Leo X., who, in the following year, sent him as his legate into Germany, the principal object of his mission being to endeavour to bring Luther back to the old faith. He was

author of a Commentary on the Bible; a Commentary on the Summa of Thomas Aquinas; a Treatise on the Authority of the Pope, &c.

Caj'uput. Same as Cajeput.

Cal'aba-oil, an excellent illuminating oil obtained from calaba-nuts, the seeds of Calophyllum calaba, a tree that flourishes in Brazil and the W. Indies.

Calabar', a maritime district of West Africa on the Bight of Biafra, intersected

CALABAR BEAN

by two rivers, called respectively Old and New Calabar, under British protection. A large portion of the population are employed in the palm-oil trade. Old Calabar or Bongo river is situated about 90 miles nearly due w. from New Calabar river, with a wide estuary opening into the Bight of Biafra. New Calabar enters the Bight of Biafra at lon. 7° 7′ E., and is believed to be one of the numerous terminating branches of the Niger. Duke Town and Creek Town, the chief towns on Old Calabar river, are stations of British missionaries.

Calabar Bean, the seed of Physostigma venenōsum, a leguminous African plant, nearly allied to the kidney-bean. It is a powerful narcotic poison, operating also as a purgative and emetic, and in virtue of these last qualities is the famous 'ordeal bean' of Africa, administered to persons suspected of witchcraft. If it causes purging it indicates crime; if vomiting, innocence. It induces fainting fits and asphyxia, and weakens or paralyzes the action of the heart. It is employed in medicine, chiefly (externally) as an agent for producing contraction of the pupil of the eye in certain cases; sometimes also (internally) in neuralgia, tetanus, and rheumatism,

Calabash, a vessel made of a dried gourd shell or of a calabash shell, used in some parts of America and Africa. They are so closegrained and hard that when they contain any liquid they may be put several times on the fire as kettles.

Calabash-tree, the popular name of the American trees or shrubs belonging to the genus Crescentia, given to them because of their large gourd-like fruits, the hard shells of which are made into numerous domestic utensils, as basins, cups, spoons, bottles, &c. The name is also given to Adansonia digitāta, the baobab of Africa.

Calabozo (-bo'thō), a town of Venezuela, in a plain between the rivers Guarico and Urituco. The neighbouring ponds abound in electrical eels. Pop. 6000.

Cala'bria, a name anciently given to the peninsula at the south-eastern extremity of Italy, but now applied to the s. w. peninsula in which Italy terminates, from about lat. 40° N. to the Strait of Messina; area 6663 square miles; pop. 1,304,980. It is dividel into three provinces-Cosenza, Reggio, and Catanzaro. The central region is occupied by the great Apennine ridge, to which whole colonies with their cattle migrate in the summer. The flats near the coast are

CALAMANDER WOOD.

marshy and unhealthy, but the valleys at the foot of the mountains are rich with the most luxuriant vegetation. The country is subject to earthquakes. Wheat, rice, saffron, anise, liquorice, madder, flax, hemp, olives, almonds, and cotton are raised in abundance. The sugar-cane also comes to perfection here. Sheep, horned cattle, and horses are numerous. Silkworms are extensively raised. The minerals include alabaster, marble, gypsum, alum, chalk, rock-salt, lapis lazuli, &c. The fisheries are valuable.

Cala'dium, a genus of plants, order Araceæ, natives of tropical S. America, often cultivated in hothouses on account of their large finely coloured leaves.

Calahorra (ka-là-or'rà; anc. Calagurris), a town of Spain, near the s. side of the Ebro, province of Logroño. Birthplace of Quintilian. Wine, grain, oil, and flax are produced in the neighbourhood. Pop. 8134.

Calais (kä-lā), a fortified seaport town of France, dep. Pas-de-Calais, on the Strait of, and 25 miles S. E. of Dover, and distant 184 miles by rail from Paris. The Old Town or Calais proper has a citadel, and was till recently surrounded by fortifications; but the modern suburb of St. Pierre les Calais having been amalgamated with Calais proper, both are now surrounded with forts and other works, to which morasses lend additional strength. Extensive harbour improvements have recently been carried out. Calais has considerable exports of grain, wine, and spirits, eggs, fruit and vegetables; but the town derives its principal importance from its being the chief landing-place for English travellers to the Continent. It has important manufactures of cotton and silk bobbin-net lace. In 1347 Calais was taken by Edward III. of England, after a siege of eleven months. In 1558 it was retaken by the Duke of Guise, being the last relic of the French dominions of the Plantagenets, which at one time comprehended the half of France. Pop. 56,867.

Calais, a town of the U. States in Maine, on the river St. Croix, a centre of the lumber trade. Pop. 7655.

of.

Calais, STRAITS OF. See Dover, Straits

Cal'aite, a name for turquoise. Calaman'co, a glossy woollen stuff chequered in the warp, and either ribbed or plain.

Calaman'der Wood (supposed to be a corruption of Coromandel wood), a beautiful species of wood, the product of Diospyros

CALAMARY

quæsita, nat. order Ebenaceæ, a native of Ceylon. It resembles rosewood, but is so hard that it is worked with great difficulty. It takes a very high polish, and is wrought into chairs and tables, and yields veneers of almost unequalled beauty.

Cal'amary, the general name for two-gilled decapod cuttle-fishes of the family Teuthida, but properly used to designate those of the genus Loligo. The body is oblong, soft, fleshy, tapering, and flanked behind by two triangular fins, and contains a pen-shaped gladius or internal horny flexible shell. They have the power of discharging, when alarmed or pursued, a black fluid from an ink-bag. The species are found in all seas, and furnish food to dolphins, whales, &c. Some species can dash out of the water and propel themselves through the air for 80 or 100 yards. Loligo vulgaris occasionally grows to the length of 2 feet. Called also Squid.

Cal'ambac, a fragrant wood, same as Agila or Agallochum.

Calamianes (-ä'nez), a cluster of islands in the Indian Sea, among the Philippines, midway between Mindora and Palawan, forming a Spanish province. One of them is 36 miles long and 17 miles broad.

Cal'amine, an ore of zinc. See Zinc. Cal'amint, a plant of the genus Calamintha, nat. order Labiata. The plants are herbs or shrubs with dense whorls of purplewhite or yellow flowers, with a two-lipped corolla and four conniving stamens. Some species are known respectively by the names of mountain-balm, catmint, basilbalm, and wild-basil. The first, also termed common calamint (C. officinālis), has aromatic leaves, employed to make herb-tea. Calamite (Calamites), a genus of fossil plants, very characteristic of the carboniferous rocks.

They had the habit of the modern equisetums, to which they are closely allied, but they were arborescent, with woody stems, true leaves, and corms with fruit scales like equisetum, but protected externally with bract leaves.

Calamus, a genus of palms, the stems of the different species of which are the rattancanes of commerce. The genus holds a middle station between the grasses and palms, with the habit of the former and the inflorescence of the latter. The species are principally found in the hotter parts of the East Indies.

Cal'amus, in Scrip. the word used to translate a Hebrew term which is believed to

CALATRAVA.

mean an aromatic substance obtained from some kind of reed or cane, probably Andropôgon Schænanthus or A. Calamus aromaticus (sweet-scented lemon-grass). The name is also given to the root of the sweet-flag or sweet rush (Acorus Calamus). See Sweetflag.

Cal'amy, EDMUND, a Presbyterian divine, born in London in 1600, died 1666. He engaged warmly in the religious disputes of the day, and was one of the writers of the famous treatise against Episcopacy, entitled Smectymnuus, a title furnished from the initial letters of the authors' names. -His son, Dr. BENJAMIN CALAMY, became an Episcopal clergyman, and distinguished himself by the publication of A Discourse about a Scrupulous Conscience, 1683.--The nephew of Benjamin, EDMUND CALAMY, born in 1671, died 1732, has a place in literature as the biographer of Nonconformity. He published an abridgment of Baxter's History of his Life and Times, with a continuation; the Life of Increase Mather, &c.

Calas (kä-lä), JEAN, a memorable victim of fanaticism, born 1698, executed 1762. He was a Protestant, and was engaged as a merchant in Toulouse, when his eldest son committed suicide; and as he was known to be attached to the Roman Catholic faith, a cry arose that he had on that account been murdered by his father. Jean Calas and his whole family were arrested, and a prosecution instituted against him, in support of which numerous witnesses came forward. The parliament of Toulouse condemned him, by eight voices against five, to be tortured and then broken on the wheel, which sentence was carried out, his property being also confiscated. Voltaire became acquainted with his family, and procured a revision of the trial, when Calas was declared innocent, and his widow pensioned.

Calatafi'mi, a town of Sicily near its western extremity, with a ruinous Saracenic castle. Near it is the scene of Garibaldi's first victory over the Neapolitans in 1860. Pop. 10,349.

Calatayud', a town, Spain, in the province of Saragossa, on the Jalon. Manufactures: linen and hempen fabrics, ropes, soap, paper, &c. The poet Martial was born here. Pop. 11,512.

Calatra'va, anciently a famous fortress of Spain, on the Guadiana, not far from Ciudad Real. It gave its name to a Span ish order of chivalry founded by Sancho III. in connection with the defence of the place

CALCAREOUS

against the Moors, 1158. For a long period the war with the Moors was carried on mainly by the knights of Calatrava, who acquired great riches. In 1808 their possessions were confiscated, and the order became a simple order of merit.

Calca'reous, a term applied to substances partaking of the nature of lime, or containing quantities of lime. Thus we speak of calcareous waters, calcareous rocks, calcareous soils.-Calcareous spar, crystallized carbonate of lime. It is found crystallized in more than 700 different forms, all having for their primitive form an obtuse rhomboid. The rarest and most beautiful crystals are found in Derbyshire.-Calcareous tufa, an alluvial deposit of carbonate of lime, formed generally by springs, which, issuing through limestone strata, hold in solution a portion of calcareous earth; this they deposit on coming in contact with air and light. Calcsinter is a variety of it.

Calceola'ria (L. calceolus, a slipper, from the shape of the inflated corolla resembling a shoe or slipper), slipperwort, a genus of ornamental herbaceous or shrubby plants, nat. order Scrophulariaceae. All the species are South American; extensively cultivated in our gardens. Most of them have yellow flowers, some have puce-coloured ones, and some occur with the two colours intermixed, while

some are white. The

Calceolaria.

greater number in cultivation are hybrids and not true species.

Calcination, the operation of roasting a substance or subjecting it to heat, generally with the purpose of driving off some volatile ingredient, and so rendering the substance suitable for further operations. The term was formerly also applied to the operation of converting a metal into an oxide or metallic calx: now called oxidation.

Cal'cite, a term applied to various mineIrals all of which are modifications of the rhombohedral form of carbonate of calcium. It includes limestone, all the white and most of the coloured marbles, chalk, Iceland-spar, &c.

Cal'cium, the metallic base of lime; in the

CALCULUS.

metallic state, one of the rarest of substances; combined, one of the most abundant and most widely distributed. As phosphate, it forms the main part of the mineral matter of the bones of animals; as carbonate, chalk, limestone, or marble, it forms mountain ranges; as sulphate or gypsum, large deposits in various geological formations; it is a constituent of many minerals, as fluorspar, Iceland-spar, &c., and is found in all soils, in the ash of plants, dissolved in seawater, and in springs, both common and mineral. It was first obtained in the metallic state by Sir H. Davy in 1808. When quite pure, it is a pale-yellow metal, with a high lustre. It is about one and a half times as heavy as water, ductile, malleable, and very oxidizable. Its salts are for the most part insoluble or sparingly soluble in water, but dissolve in dilute acids. Symbol Ca; atomic weight 40.

Cálc-sinter, a carbonate of lime, the substance which forms the stalactites and stalagmites that beautify many caves.

Calculating Machines, machines or contrivances by which the results of arithmetical operations may be obtained mechanically. Various machines of this kind have been produced, but the only one much used is the invention of M. Thomas of Colmar (the arithmometer), which performs only addition and subtraction along with multiplication and division. The more complicated ones invented for more difficult operations by Babbage were never completed.

Cal'culus, THE INFINITESIMAL, or TRANSCENDENTAL ANALYSIS, a branch of mathematical science. The lower or common analysis contains the rules necessary to calculate quantities of any definite magnitude whatever. But quantities are sometimes considered as varying in magnitude, or as having arrived at a given state of magnitude by successive variations. This gives rise to the higher analysis, which is of the greatest use in the physico-mathematical sciences. Two objects are here proposed: First, to descend from quantities to their elements. The method of effecting this is called the differential calculus. Second, to ascend from the elements of quantities to the quantities themselves. This method is called the integral calculus. Both of these methods are included under the general name infinitesimal or transcendental analysis. Those quantities which retain the same value are called constant; those whose values are varying are called variable. When vari