whole sole of the foot to the ground in walking, while the Digitigrada walk on the tips of their toes. The Plantigrada are also less decidedly carnivorous, and feed much on roots, honey, and fruits. In the Pinnigrada the body is long and of a fish shape, the fore and hind limbs are short and expanded into broad webbed swimming - paddles. The hind-feet are placed far back, and more or less tied down to the tail by the integu

ments.

Carnot (kär-no), LAZARE NICOLAS MARGUERITE, a French statesman, general, and strategist, was born in 1753, and died in 1823. When the revolution broke out he was captain in the corps of engineers. In 1791 he was appointed deputy to the constituent assembly. In the following March he was sent to the Army of the North, where he took command, and successfully repulsed the enemy. On his return he was made member of the Committee of Public Safety, and directed and organized the French armies with great ability and success. As a member of the Committee Carnot was formally responsible for the decrees of Robespierre, but being incessantly occupied in his department knew really little of the atrocities to which the sanction of his name was lent. In 1797 Carnot, having unsuccessfully opposed Barras, had to escape to Germany, but returned, and was appointed minister of war by Napoleon (1800). But he remained in principle an inflexible republican, voted against the consulship for life, and protested against Napoleon's assumption of the imperial dignity. In 1814 Napoleon gave him the chief command at Antwerp, and in 1815 the post of minister of the in terior. A grandson of his, MARIE FRANÇOIS SADI, born in 1837, was elected president of the French republic in 1887. He was assassinated June 24, 1894, by an Italian anarchist, in the city of Lyons, France, and M. Casimir-Perier was elected to fill the vacant presidency.

Caro, ANNIBALE, one of the most cele brated Italian authors of the 16th century, born 1507, died 1566. He was secretary to several members of the great Farnese family. He devoted himself to numismatics and the Tuscan language, and became famous for the purity and elegance of his style. Among his works are Translations of the Æneid and of Aristotle's Rhetoric. Carob-tree, or ALGAROBA-BEAN (Ceratonia siliqua), a leguminous plant of the suborder Casalpinieæ, growing wild in all the

countries on the Mediterranean. It has a dark-green foliage, and produces pods in which the seeds are imbedded in a dry nutritious pulp of a sweet taste. The names locust-beans and St. John's bread have been given to the legumes of this plant, from an idea that they were the food eaten, along with wild honey, by the Baptist in the wilderness. In the south of Europe they are principally used as food for horses, and they are imported into Britain as a food for cattle.

Car'ol, a song, especially one expressive of joy. It often signifies, specifically, a religious song or ballad in celebration of Christmas, such as are sung about Christmas-tide in English churches or by 'waits' out of doors.

Carolina, NORTH, one of the United States, bounded N. by Virginia, E. by the Atlantic, s. by South Carolina and Georgia, and w. by Tennessee; area, 52,250 sq. miles. The principal rivers are the Roanoke and Chowan, Neuse, Pamlico or Tar, and Cape Fear and Yadkin. The coast is generally difficult of access, being fringed by a line of narrow sandy islands, between which and the mainland the passages are mostly shallow and dangerous. There are three noted capes on the coast, viz. Cape Hatteras, Cape Look-out, and Cape Fear, all dangerous to seamen. North Carolina is generally a dead level for 40 to 60 miles inland, this part largely consisting of cypress swamps; next comes a fine undulating country largely under cultivation or clothed with deciduous trees; lastly comes the region of the Appalachians, with Mt. Mitchell (6707 feet) the highest of all: fine fruits and picturesque scenery are here the characteristics. The mineral resources are highly valuable, including coal and iron in abundance, silver, lead, zinc, emery, &c. Among animals are the wolf, deer, opossum, raccoon, foxes of several kinds, turtles, tortoises, rattlesnake and other snakes, aquatic birds in great abundance. In the level parts the soil generally is but indifferent. On the banks of some of the rivers, however, and particularly the Roanoke, it is remarkably fertile. The more elevated grounds are for the most part remarkably fertile. Cotton is grown in large quantities in the sandy isles and the flat country; rice is also grown largely among the swamps. The chief staples, however, are Indian corn, tobacco, wheat, oats, and sweet-potatoes. The pitch-pine, which grows abundantly in the low districts, is one of the most valuable productions, affording the

the Union, and it was not formally restored till 1858. There is a large coloured population. Pop. 1,891,992.

Carolina, SOUTH, one of the United States, bounded N. by North Carolina, E. by the Atlantic, s.w. and w. by Georgia; area, 30,570 sq. miles. Columbia is the seat of government, but Charleston is much the largest town. The chief rivers are the Great Pedee and the Congaree and Wateree, which unite to form the Santee, together with the Savannah, forming the boundary between South Carolina and Georgia. These and other streams, flowing generally in a s.E. direction, afford an inland navigation to the extent of 2400 miles. There is now also a considerable net-work of railways. The principal harbour is that of Charleston. Numerous small islands along the coast supply the famous Sea-island cotton. In physical constitution South Carolina resembles its northern neighbour, a great level plain of

forest and swamp extending westward from the sea, till it begins 100 miles inward to rise in ranges of sand-hills, and finally reaches ranges of 4000 feet in the Appalachians. In this western district the land is fertile, well cultivated, and watered by considerable streams. The staple products of the state are cotton and rice, of which great quantities are annually exported. The culture of wheat, barley, oats, and other crops has been comparatively neglected. The ricelands of South Carolina give employment to thousands of coloured people. The low country is subject to fevers, but the upper country enjoys as salubrious a climate as any part of the United States. S. Carolina is rich in minerals, including gold, iron, manganese, copper, lead, granite, limestone, and valuable phosphate-marls. The commerce is considerable, the chief exports being cotton, rice, timber, and naval stores. Education is at a low ebb, there being pro

portionally more illiterates in this than in any other state. The Baptist is the most numerous of the religious denominations. The first settlement of South Carolina was made by whites at Port Royal about 1670, but a permanent establishment was formed only ten years later by the congregation of a few settlers at Charleston. In 1695 the cultivation of rice was introduced by Governor Smith; that of cotton followed; and on these two staples the colony soon began to flourish. South Carolina was the first of the states to secede from the Union, and it suffered severely in the civil war between North and South, and was the theatre of some of the most remarkable events which it produced. Of late years more attention has been given to education. Pop. 1,340,312. Carolina-pink, a name given to the Spigelia marylandica, a North American plant bearing scarlet flowers, and having a root used as a vermifuge.

Caroline, British queen, was a daughter of the Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, born May 17, 1768. In 1795 she was married to the Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. The marriage was not to his liking, and after the birth of the Princess Charlotte he separated from her. Many reports were circulated against her honour, and a ministerial committee was formed to inquire into her conduct. But the people in general sympathized with her, regarding her as an ill-treated wife. In 1814 she made a journey through Germany, Italy, Greece, &c., to Jerusalem, in which an Italian, Bergami, was her confidant and attendant. When the Prince of Wales ascended the throne in 1820 he offered her an income of £50,000 on condition that she would never return to England. She refused, and in the June of same year entered London amid public demonstrations of welcome. The government now instituted proceedings against her for adultery, but the public feeling and the splendid defence of Brougham obliged the ministry to give up the Divorce Bill after it had passed the Lords. Though banished from the court, the queen now assumed a style suitable to her rank. She died 7th Aug. 1821.

Caroline Islands, or NEW PHILIPPINES, a large archipelago, North Pacific Ocean, between lat. 3° and 12° N. and lon. 132° and 163° 6' E., and between the Philippines and the Marshall Isles, first discovered by the Spaniards in 1543, if not by the Portuguese in 1525. Many of the islands are mere coral

- CARP.

reefs little elevated above the ocean. They form many groups, the most important being the Pelews, and those to which the largest islands of all, Yap and Ponape, respectively belong. The pop. is estimated at 20,000, made up of inhabitants of different races and stages of civilization. The most important vegetable productions are palms, bread-fruit trees, and bananas. The natives show great skill in constructing their canoes and building their houses. There is an American Protestant and a Roman Catholic mission. Some trade is carried on at Yap and Ponape. The islands were owned by Spain, but were sold to Germany in 1899; in 1885 war nearly arose when the latter country proposed to occupy Yap.

Carolingian. See Carlovingian.

Car'olus, a gold coin struck in the reign of Charles I., and originally 20s. in value, afterwards 23s. The name was given also to various other coins.

Carotid Arteries, the two great arteries which convey the blood from the aorta to the head and the brain. The common carotids, one on either side of the neck, divide each into an external and an internal branch. The external carotid passes up to the level of the angle of the lower jaw, where it ends in branches to the neck, face, and outer parts of the head. The internal carotid passes deeply into the neck, and through an opening in the skull behind the ear enters the brain, supplying it and the eye with blood. Wounds of the carotid trunks cause almost immediate death.

Carouge (ka-rözh), a town of Switzerland, on the Arve, near Geneva, with which it is connected by a bridge. Pop. 5889.

Carp (Cyprinus), a genus of soft-finned abdominal fish (type of the family Cypri

Carp (Cyprinus carpio).

nida), distinguished by the small mouth, toothless jaws, and gills of three flat rays. They have but one dorsal fin, and the scales are generally of large size. They frequent fresh and quiet waters, feeding chiefly on vegetable matters, also on worms and molluscs. The common carp (C. carpio) is olive-green above and yellowish below, and in many parts is bred in ponds for the

CARPACCIO

use of the table. It sometimes weighs many pounds, is of quick growth, and spawns thrice a year. It is said to live to the great age of 100 or even 200 years. This remarkable fish moves 4386 bones and muscles each time it breathes; it has 4320 veins and 99 muscles. The gold-fish, C. aurātus, was originally from China.

Carpaccio (kar-pach'o), VITTORE, Italian painter, one of the most celebrated masters of the old Venetian school, was born probably at Venice about 1450-55, and died there after 1521. His distinguishing characteristics are natural expression, vivid conception, correct arrangement, and great variety of figures and costumes. He also excelled as an architectural and landscape painter. Scriptural subjects were also depicted by him.

Carpa'thian Mountains (German, Karpathen), a range of mountains in Southern Europe, chiefly in Austria, forming a great semicircular belt of nearly 800 miles in length. The Carpathian chain may be divided into two great sections-the West Carpathians, in Hungary, to the north-west, and the East Carpathians, in Transylvania, to the south-east, with lower ranges stretching between. To the Western Carpathians belongs the remarkable group of the Tatra. The greatest height of the East Carpathians is Ruska-Poyana, 9909 feet; of the West Carpathians, the Eisthalerspitze, 8521 feet; many other peaks have an elevation over 8000 feet. The outer bend of the Carpathians is much steeper than that which descends towards the valleys of Transylvania and Hungary. The only important rivers which actually rise in the chain are the Vistula, the Dniester, and the Theiss. The Carpathian range is rich in minerals, including gold, silver, quicksilver, copper, and iron. Salt occurs in beds, which have sometimes a thickness of 600 or 700 feet. On the plateaux corn and fruit are grown to the height of 1500 feet. Higher up the mountain steeps are covered with forests of pine. There is much remarkable scenery.

Car'pel, in botany, a single-celled ovary or seed-vessel, or a single cell of an ovary or seed-vessel, together with what belongs to that cell, as in many cases a separate style and stigma of the pistil. The pistil or fruit often consists of only one carpel, in which case it is called simple; when either consists of more than one carpel it is called compound. A carpel is regarded as a modified leaf.

CARPENTRAS.

Carpenta'ria, GULF OF, a large gulf on the north coast of Australia, having Cape York Peninsula, the northern extremity of Queensland, on the E., and Arnhem Land on the w.

Carpenter, WILLIAM BENJAMIN, M.D., LL.D., an English physiologist, born 1813, died 1885. He studied medicine at University College, London, and at Edinburgh University, subsequently held several lectureships in London, and ultimately became registrar at London University (1856-79). He wrote several well-known works on physiology: Principles of General and Comparative Physiology; Principles of Mental Physiology; Principles of Human Physiology; a Manual of Zoology, &c. He took a leading part in the expeditions sent out by government in 1868-70 for deep-sea exploration in the North Atlantic. He was chosen president of the British Association at Brighton in 1872.

Carpenter-bee, the common name of the different species of hymenopterous insects of the genus Xylocopa. The species are

numerous in Asia, Africa, and America, and one species inhabits the south of Europe. They are generally of a dark violet-blue, and of considerable size. They usually form their nests in pieces of half-rotten wood, cutting out various apartments for depositing their eggs.

Carpentras (kar-pan-trä), a town, Southern France, dep. Vaucluse, 14 miles N.E. of Avignon, surrounded by walls flanked with towers. It is an ancient town, and has a Roman triumphal arch, an aqueduct, &c. Pop. 7443.

CARPENTRY

Car'pentry is the art of combining pieces of timber to support a weight or sustain pressure. The work of the carpenter is intended to give stability to a structure, that of the joiner is applied to finishing and decoration. An explanation of some of the terms employed in carpentry may be useful. The term frame is applied to any assemblage of pieces of timber firmly connected together. The points of meeting of the pieces of timber in a frame are called joints. Lengthening a beam is uniting pieces of timber into one length by joining their extremities. When neatness is not required this is done by fishing, that is, placing a piece of timber on each side of where the beams meet and securing it by bolts passed through the whole. When the width of the beam must be kept the same throughout scarfing is employed. This is cutting from each beam a part of the thickness of the timber, and on opposite sides, so that the pieces may be jointed together and bolted or hooped. When greater strength is required than can be produced by a single beam building and trussing beams are resorted to. Building beams is combining two or more beams in depth so as to have the effect of one. In trussing the beam is cut in two in the direction of its length, and sopported with cross-beams, as in roofing. Mortise and tenon is a mode of jointing timber. An excavation called the mortise is made in one piece, and a projecting tongue to fit it called the tenon in the other. The timber framework of floors is called naked flooring, and is single if there be but a single series of joists, double if there are cross-binding joists, and framed if there are girders or beams in addition to the joists. The roof is the framework by which the covering of a building is supported. It may consist of a series of sloping pieces of timber, with one end resting on one wall and the other end meeting in a point with a corresponding piece resting on the opposite wall: these are called rafters. There is usually a third piece which connects the lower extremities of the rafters and prevents them from spreading. This is called a tie, and the whole frame a couple. The principal instruments used in carpentry are saws, as the circular-, band-, and tenon-saws; planes, as the jackplane, smoothing-plane, moulding-plane, &c.; chisels, gouges, brad-awls, gimlets, descriptions of which will be found in their places.

Carpet, a thick fabric, generally composed wholly or principally of wool, for covering

the floors of apartments, staircases, and passages in the interior of a house. They were originally introduced from the East, where they were fabricated in pieces, like the modern rugs, for sitting on-a use obviously suggested by the Eastern habit of sitting cross-legged upon the floor. Eastern carpets are still highly thought of in Europe, into which they are largely imported. The Persian, Turkish, and Indian carpets are all woven by hand, and the design is formed by knotting into the warp tufts of woollen threads of the proper colour. Of carpets made in this country and Europe Brussels carpet is a common and highly-esteemed variety. It is composed of linen thread and worsted, the latter forming the pattern. The linen basis does not appear on the surface, being concealed by the worsted, which is drawn through the reticulations and looped over wires that are afterwards withdrawn, giving the surface a ribbed appearance. Wilton carpets are similar to Brussels in process of manufacture, but in them the loops are cut open by using wires with a knife-edge, and the surface thus gets a pile. Tapestry carpets have also a pile surface. They are made in a manner similar to that in which Brussels and Wilton carpets are manufactured; but only one yarn is used instead of five or more of different colours, as in the carpets just named. The Kidderminster or Scotch carpet consists of two distinct webs woven at the same time and knitted together by the woof. The pattern is the same on both sides of the cloth, but the colours are reversed. An improvement upon this is the three-ply carpeting, made originally at Kilmarnock. The original Axminster carpets were made on the principle of the Persian or Turkish carpets. Axminster carpets, made in one piece to suit the size of the room, have a fine pile, which is produced by using chenille as the weft, the projecting threads of which form the pile, which is dyed before being used. Carpets of felted wool, with designs printed on them, are also used, and are very cheap. Philadelphia is the leading carpet-manufacturing city in the United States.

Carpet-bagger, a needy political adventurer who goes about the country pandering to the prejudices of the ignorant with the view of getting into place or power, so called because regarded as having no more property than might fill a carpet-bag. Originally applied to needy adventurers of the Northern States of America who tried in this way to