out in the sides of the cave.

Caves of this kind were common amongst the Phoenicians, Greeks, Persians, and many oriental nations. In Sicily and Asia Minor numerous excavations have been discovered containing sepulchres, and the catacombs near Naples are remarkably extensive. Those of Rome, however, are the most important. The term

Catacomb of St. Agnes, Rome.

catacumba is said to have been originally applied to the district near Rome which contains the chapel of St. Sebastian, in the vaults of which, according to tradition, the body of St. Peter was first deposited; but (besides its general application) it is now applied in a special way to all the extensive subterranean burial-places in the neighbourhood of Rome, which extend underneath the town itself as well as the neighbouring country, and are said to contain not less than 6,000,000 tombs. They consist of long narrow galleries usually about 8 feet high and 5 feet wide, which branch off in all directions, forming a perfect maze of corridors. Different stories of galleries lie one below the other. Vertical shafts run up to the outer air, thus introducing light and air, though in small quantity. The graves or loculi lie longwise in the galleries. They are closed laterally by a slab, on which there is occasionally a brief inscription or a symbol, such as a dove, an anchor, or a palmbranch, and sometimes both. The earliest that can be dated with any certainty belongs to the year 111 A.D. It is now regarded as certain that in times of persecution the early Christians frequently took

refuge in the catacombs, in order to celebrate there in secret the ceremonies of their religion; but it is not less certain that the catacombs served also as ordinary places of burial to the early Christians, and were for the most part excavated by the Christians themselves. In early times rich Christians constructed underground burying-places for themselves and their brethren, which they held as private property under the protection of the law. But in course of time, partly by their coming under the control of the church and partly by accidents of proprietorship, these private burying-grounds were connected with each other, and became the property, not of particular individuals, but of the Christian community. In the 3d century A.D. there were already several such common burying-places belonging to the Christian congregations, and their number went on increasing till the time of Constantine, when the catacombs ceased to be used as burying-places. From the time of Constantine down to the 8th century they were used only as places of devotion and worship. But their use as formal places of worship can only have been occasional, for the limited dimensions even of the largest rooms, and the extreme narrowness of the passages, must have made it impossible for any large number to take efficient part in the services at one time. But though the idea of the catacombs as regular places of worship may be carried too far, there is no doubt, from the episcopal chairs, altars, basins, &c., found within them, and from the subjects of the mosaics and carvings on the walls, that the rites of the church, and particularly the eucharist and the sacrament of baptism, were often celebrated there. They could never have served as dwellingplaces for any length of time to the Christians, residence in most of them for more than a short time being very dangerous to the health. During the siege of Rome by the Lombards in the 8th century the catacombs were in part destroyed, and soon became entirely inaccessible, so that they were forgotten, and only the careful and laborious investigations of moderns, amongst whom De Rossi (Roma Sotterranea) and Parker (The Catacombs) may be mentioned, have thrown anything like a complete light on the origin and history of the catacombs. There are extensive catacombs at Paris, consisting of old quarries from which has been obtained much of the material for the building of the city. In them are accumulated

over.

Cat'acoustics, the science of reflected sounds, or that part of acoustics which considers the properties of echoes.

Catafal cc, CATAFALQUE, a temporary and ornamental structure, representing a tomb placed over the coffin of a distinguished person or over a grave.

Catalan, a native of Catalonia, or Northeastern Spain, or the language of Catalonia, which holds a position similar to the Provençal, having been early cultivated and boasting a considerable literature. It was established as a literary language by the close of the 13th century, and is still to some extent used as such in its own region.

Catalan Grand Company, the name given to a troop of adventurers raised by Roger di Flor about the beginning of the 14th century. They numbered about 8000 men of different nationalities, Catalans, Sicilians, Arragonese, &c., and were led by Roger to the East to aid Emperor Andronicus in his struggle with the Turks. They fought well and did good service, but their habits of plunder and rapine made them as formidable to their friends as their foes. The company was broken up in 1315, some twelve years after its formation.

Catala'ni, ANGELICA, one of the most celebrated of Italian female singers, was born in 1779, and died in 1849. Family misfortunes compelled her to turn her remarkable voice to account, and in her 16th year she made her first appearance on the stage at Venice. After filling the chief soprano parts in the best opera-houses of Italy she visited successively Madrid, Paris, and London, enjoying everywhere great professional triumphs, as she continued to do in similar tours which she repeatedly made afterwards. In 1830 she retired.

Catalaunian Plain, the wide plain around Châlons-sur-Marne, famous as the field where Aetius, the Roman general, and Theodoric, king of the West Goths, gained a complete victory over Attila, 451 A.D.

Catalep'sy, a spasmodic disease, generally connected with hysteria, in which there is a sudden suspension of the senses and volition, with statue-like fixedness of the body and limbs in the attitude immediately preceding the attack, while the action of the heart and lungs continues, and the pulse and temperature remain natural. It is generally the consequence of some other disease, or

operation of unobserved causes.

Catalonia (anc. Hispania Tarraconensis), an old province of Spain, bounded N. by France, E. and S.E. by the Mediterranean, s. by Valencia, and w. by Arragon. The country in general is mountainous, but intersected with fertile valleys, while the mountains themselves are covered with valuable woods and fruit-trees, the slopes being cut in terraces and plentifully supplied with water by an artificial system of irrigation. Wheat, wine, oil, flax, hemp, vegetables, and almost every kind of fruit are abundant. There are mines of lead, iron, alum, &c. On the coast is a coral-fishery. Catalonia, though less fertile than most of Spain, stands pre-eminent for the industry of its inhabitants, who speak the Catalan dialect (see Catalan). Pop. 1,800,428; area, 12,480 sq. miles. It comprises the modern provinces of Tarragona, Gerona, Lerida, and Barcelona.

Catalpa, a genus of plants, order Bignoniacea. The species are trees with simple leaves and large, gay, trumpetshaped flowers. C. syringifolia, a North American species, is well adapted for large shrubberies, and has been introduced into England and other parts of Europe. C. longissima contains much tannin in its bark, and is known in the West Indies by the name of French oak.

Catalysis, or CONTACT ACTION, the chemical change which occurs when one body decomposes another without being itself changed; thus oxide of cobalt decomposes a solution of bleaching-powder into chloride of calcium and oxygen, itself remaining without change.

Catamaran', a sort of raft used in the East Indies, Brazil, and elsewhere. Those of the island of Ceylon, like those of Madras and other parts of that coast, are formed of three logs lashed together. Their length is from 20 to 25 feet, and breadth 2 to 3 feet. The centre log is much the largest, and is pointed at the fore-end. These floats are navigated with great skill by one or two men in a kneeling posture. They think nothing of passing through the surf which lashes the beach at Madras when boats of the best construction would be swamped.

Catamarca, a province of the Argentine Republic, South America; area, about 31,500 square miles; mountainous in all directions except the s. Pop. 130,000. The capital is Catamarca, or more fully San Fernando de Catamarca. Pop. about 6000.

CATAMENIA

Catame'nia. See Menstruation. Cat'amount, or CATAMOUNTAIN, the wild cat. In America the name is also given to the tiger or the puma.

Cata'nia (anc. Catana), a city on the east coast of Sicily, in the province of Catania, at the foot of Mount Etna. It has been repeatedly visited by tremendous earthquakes, one of the worst of which was in 1693, when 18,000 people were destroyed, and has been partially laid in ruins by lava

CATARACT.

from eruptions of Mount Etna. But Catania has always revived, and has much more the features of a metropolis than Palermo. Most of the edifices have an air of magnificence unknown in other parts of the island, and the town has a title to rank among the elegant cities of Europe. The cathedral, founded by Count Roger in 1094, is a fine building. The manufacture of silk, linen, and articles in lava, amber, &c., constitutes the chief industry. The ruins of

the amphitheatre, which was more extensive than the Colosseum at Rome, are still to be seen, as also the remains of the theatre, baths, aqueducts, sepulchral chambers, hippodrome, and several temples. The harbour was choked up by the eruption of 1669, so that for larger vessels there is nothing but a roadstead. In spite of this Catania has a considerable trade, and exports wheat, barley, wine, oil, &c. Pop. 96,017.

Catanzaro, a cathedral city, South Italy, capital of province of the same name, on a height, 5 miles from the Gulf of Squillace, with manufactures of silk and velvet, and some trade in wheat, wine, oil, &c. Pop. 20,931. Area of prov. 2307 sq. miles; pop. 457,660.

Cataplasm. See Poultice.

Cat'apult, a machine of the ancients for projecting missiles, chiefly arrows. They may be described as a kind of gigantic crossbows. Balista were engines somewhat 305

VOL. II.

similarly constructed, but were chiefly confined to the shooting of stones.

It

Cat'aract, a disease of the eye, consisting in an opacity of the crystalline lens, or its capsule, or both. It is quite different from amaurosis, which is a disease of the retina. In cataract the lens becomes opaque, and is no longer capable of transmitting the light. Its earliest approach is marked by a loss of the natural colour of the pupil, and when developed it causes the pupil to have a milk-white or pearly colour. is most common in old or elderly people, and is quite painless. Cataract is treated by different surgical operations, all of them consisting in removing the diseased lens from its situation opposite the transparent cornea. In couching, the lens is depressed, removed downwards, and kept from rising by the vitreous humour; but this method is now almost entirely given up in favour of removal of the lens by extraction. Extrac

52

tion consists in making an incision in the cornea, and in the capsule of the lens, by which the lens may be brought forward, and through the cut in the cornea, so as to be altogether removed. The third operation is by absorption. This consists in wounding the capsule, breaking down the crystalline, and bringing the fragments into the anterior chamber of the eye, where they are exposed to the action of the aqueous humour, and are at length absorbed and disappear. Extraction is now the regular method, and after it is effected a special kind of spectacles are required.

Cataract, or WATERFALL, the leap of a stream over a ledge or precipice occurring in its course. Many cataracts are remarkable for their sublimity, the grandest being the Falls of Niagara, on the Niagara River between Lakes Erie and Ontario, in North America, the river having here a fall of about 160 feet. Amongst other notable falls are those of the river Montmorency, a tributary of the St. Lawrence, which are 242 feet in height; that of the river Potaro, in British Guiana, about 822 feet high and 369 broad; that of the Yosemite river, California, which makes a perpendicular leap of 2100 feet; the Victoria Falls, on the river Zambesi, in South Africa, about 370 feet high and 1860 yards broad. The cataract of the Riukanfoss, on the river Maan, in Norway, is about 900 feet high. The cascade of Gavarnie, in the Pyrenees, is reputed the loftiest in Europe, being about 13,000 feet, but its volume is so small that it is converted into spray before reaching the bottom. The fall of the Staubbach at Lauterbrunnen, in Switzerland, is between 800 and 900 feet, but has also a very small volume of water; the falls of the Rhine at Schaffhausen, renowned over Europe, are 300 feet broad and nearly 100 feet in height. In Italy the falls of Terni, on the Velino, and those of the Anio, at Tivoli, are artifificial but very beautiful. Among British waterfalls, the falls of the Clyde, three in number, viz. Bonniton Linn, 30 feet, Corra Linn, 84 feet, and Stonebyres Linn, 80 feet, are remarkable for their beauty and grandeur. The falls of the river Foyers on the east side of Loch Ness are also very remarkable. See the separate articles.

Catarrh (ka-tar'; from Gr. katarreō, I flow down), an increased secretion of mucus from the membranes of the nose, fauces, and bronchi, accompanied with fever and attended with sneezing, cough, thirst, lassi

tude, and want of appetite. There are twe species of catarrh, one which is very common, and is called a cold in the head; and another, the influenza, or epidemic catarrh. It is seldom fatal except in scrofulous habits by laying the foundation of consumption.

Catawba, a river, United States, in North Carolina, giving its name to a light wine of rich Muscadine flavour, which has acquired some celebrity in America, the grape from which it is made having been first discovered near its sources. The wine is chiefly made at Cincinnati, and has had the honour of being sung by Longfellow in one of his lyrics.

Cat-bird (Turdus felivox or Galeoscoptes carolinensis), a well-known species of American thrush, which during the summer is found throughout the Middle and New England States, frequenting thickets and shrubberies. Its note is strikingly similar to the plaint of a kitten in distress. The plumage is a deep slate-colour above and lighter below, and it is about 9 inches in length. In habit it is lively, familiar, and unsuspicious; the song is largely imitative of those of other birds. During the winter it inhabits the extreme south of the United States, and is found also in Mexico and Central America. The cat-bird frequently attacks the common black snake, which, in the absence of the bird, rifles its nest.

Catch, a short piece of music, frequently of a humorous and bacchanalian character written generally in three or four parts. It is a sort of short canon, the second voice taking up the theme when the first bas completed the first phrase, the third following the second in same manner.

Catchfly, a popular name of several plants of the genus Silene (which see). Dionaa muscipula and Lychnis Viscaria are also so called.

Câteau-Cambrésis (kä-tō-kan-brā-sis), a town, France, dep. Nord, on the right bank of the Selle, famous for the treaty of its name signed here in 1559, by which Henri II. of France gave up Calais to the English, and agreed to a mutual exchange with Spain of all conquered territories. It has various textile manufactures. Pop. 9657.

Catechetical Schools, institutions for the education of Christian teachers, of which there were many in the Eastern Church from the 2d to the 5th century. The first and most renowned were those formed at Alexandria (A.D. 160-400) on the model of

CATECHISM

the famous schools of Grecian learning in that place, Pantænus, Clement, and Origen being their most famous teachers. The schools at Antioch were also in high repute from about 290 till the 5th century. The Arian controversy broke up the Alexandrian, and the Nestorian and Eutychian controversies the Antioch schools. They were succeeded at a later date by the cathedral and monastic schools.

Catechism (kat'e-kizm; from Greek kate cheo, to sound down, utter, instruct orally), an elementary book containing a summary of principles in any science or art, but particularly in religion, reduced to the form of questions and answers. The first regular catechisms appear to have been compiled in the 8th and 9th centuries, those by Kero of St. Gall and Otfried of Weissenburg being most famous. In the R. Catholic Church each bishop has the right to make a catechism for his diocese. But in modern times R. Catholic catechisms are generally a pretty close copy of the one drawn up by the Council of Trent (published 1566), of which an English translation was issued in London (1687) under the patronage of James II. Among Protestants the catechisms of Luther (1518, 1520, and 1529) acquired great celebrity, and continue to be used in Germany, though not exclusively. Calvin's smaller and larger catechisms (1536-39) never gained the popularity of those of Luther. The catechism of the Church of England in the first book of Edward VI., March 7, 1549, contained merely the baptismal vow, the creed, the ten commandments, and the Lord's prayer, with explanations, the part relative to the sacraments being subjoined at the revision of the liturgy during the reign of James I. The catechism of the Church of Scotland is that agreed upon by the Assembly of Divines at Westminster, with the assistance of commissioners from the Church of Scotland, and approved of by the General Assembly in the year 1648. What is called the Shorter Catechism is merely an abridgment of the Larger, and is the one in most common use. The best-known catechism among English Protestant Dissenters was that of Dr. Watts; but the use of catechisms is far from usual amongst them.

Cat'echu (-shö), a name common to several astringent extracts prepared from the wood, bark, and fruits of various plants, especially by decoction and evaporation from the wood of Acacia Catechu, as well as

- CATEGORY.

from the seeds of the palm Areca Catechu, and from the Uncaria Gambier. Catechu is one of the best astringents in the materia medica. It consists chiefly of tannin, and is used in tanning, in calico-printing, &c. It is chiefly obtained from Burmah. Called also Terra Japonica and Cutch.

Catechumens (-ku'menz; literally, persons receiving instruction), a name originally applied to those converted Jews and heathens in the first ages of the church who were to receive baptism and had a particular place in the church, but were not permitted to share the sacrament. Afterwards it was applied to young Christians who, for the first time, wished to partake of this ordinance, and for this purpose went through a preparatory course of instruction.

Cat'egory, or PREDICAMENT, in logic, an assemblage of all the beings contained under any genus or kind ranged in order. The ancients, following Aristotle, held that all beings or objects of thought may be referred to ten categories, viz. quantity, quality, relation, action, passion, time, place, situation, and habit. Plato admits only five: substance, identity, diversity, motion, and rest; the Stoics four: subjects, qualities, independent circumstances, relative circumstances. Descartes suggested seven divisions: spirit, matter, quantity, substance, figure, motion, and rest. Others make but two categories, substance and attribute, or subject and accident; or three, accident being divided into the inherent and circumstantial. In the philosophy of Kant the term categories is applied to the primitive conceptions originating in the understanding independently of all experience (hence called pure conceptions), though incapable of being realized in thought except in their application to experience. These he divides into four classes, quantity, quality, relation, and modality, placing under the first class the conceptions of unity, plurality, and totality; under the second, reality, negation, and limitation; under the third, inherence and subsistence, causality and dependence, and community (mutual action); and under the fourth, possibility and impossibility, existence and nonexistence, necessity and contingency. J. S. Mill applies the term categories to the most general heads under which everything that may be asserted of any subject may be arranged. Of these he makes five, existence, co-existence, sequence, causation, and resemblance, or, considering causation as a peculiar case of sequence, four.