Chimboraʼzo, a mountain of Ecuador, in the province of Quito, about 90 miles s. by w. Quito; lat. about 2° s. Though not the loftiest summit of the Andes, it rises to the height of 20,703 feet above the level of the sea, and is covered with perpetual snow 2600 feet from the summit and upwards. In 1880 it was ascended to the top for the first time by Mr. E. Whymper.

Chimere (shi-mer'), the upper robe to which the lawn sleeves of a bishop are attached.

Chimes, a species of music, mechanically produced by the strokes of hammers against a series of bells, tuned agreeably to a given musical scale. The hammers are lifted by levers acted upon by metallic pins, or wooden pegs, stuck into a large barrel, which is made to revolve by clock-work, and is so connected with the striking part of the clock mechanism that it is set in motion by it at certain intervals of time, usually every hour, or every quarter of an hour.

The chime mechanism is sometimes so constructed that it may be played like a piano, but with the fist instead of the fingers. Chim'ney, an erection generally of stone or brick containing a passage by which the smoke of a fire or furnace escapes to the open air. In this sense the first chimneys we hear of are no earlier than the middle ages. The longer a chimney is the more perfect is its draught, provided the fire is great enough to heat the column of air in it, because the tendency of the smoke to draw upwards is in proportion to the difference of weight between the heated air in a chimney and an equal column of external air. Smoky chimneys may be caused either by the presence of other buildings obstructing the wind and giving rise to irregular currents of air, or by improper construction of the fireplace and adjacent parts of the chimney. The first may generally be cured by fixing a chimney-pot of a particular construction, or a revolving cowl, on the chimney top, in order to prevent the wind blowing down; in the second case the narrowing of the chimney throat will generally create a better draught.

Chimney-piece, the assemblage of architectural dressings around the open recess constituting the fireplace in a room.

Chimney-swallow. See Swallow. Chimpanzee, the native Guinea name of a large West and Central African ape (Troglodytes niger) belonging to the anthropoid or man-like monkeys, and to the same genus

Chimpanzee (Troglodytes niger).

having an additional dorsal vertebra and a thirteenth pair of ribs. It walks erect better than most of the apes. It feeds on fruits, often robs the gardens of the natives, and constructs a sort of nest amongst the branches. It is common in menageries, where it shows much intelligence and docility.

China, an immense empire stretching from the centre of Asia, about 75 E. lon., for 3000 miles to the east coast of Corea, in 128° E. lon.; and from the Siberian frontier at the river Amoor, about 50° 30' N. lat., for 2400 miles southwards to the island of Hainan. This vast empire, second in magnitude only to that of Russia and Great Britain, has an area of about 4,500,000 sq. miles, and a population variously estimated at 300,000,000 and 400,000,000, or more, and is usually divided into China Proper and the dependencies: Manchuria, Mongolia. Eastern Turkestan, Dzoungaria, and Tibet, of which Tibet is practically autonomous, although controlled in its foreign relations by the Chinese government. Corea acknowledges the suzerainty of China, but hardly forms part of the empire. The dependencies, though they cover more than 3,000,000 sq. miles, contain but a small and relatively unimportant part of the population (about 30,000,000), China Proper being the centre of power and population.

CHINA PROPER, known to Marco Polo and earlier travellers by the Tartar name of Cathay, called 'Middle Kingdom' by

-

Area in Population. sq. m.

Chihle,. Shantung, Shansi,

Honan,.

Kiangsu,

Nganhwuy,. Kiangsi, Chekiang, Fukien,.. Hupeh, Hunan, Shensi,

Kansu,

Szechuen,

Kwangtung, Kwangsi,.. Yunnan,..

Queichow,

Capital.

58,949 17,937,000 Peking. 65,104 36,247,835 Tse-nan-foo. 55.268 12,211,453 Tae-yuen-foo. 65,104 22,115,827 Kae-fung-foo. 44,500 20,905, 171 Nanking. 48,461 20,596,988 Ngan-king-foo. 72,176 5,151,327 Nan-chang foo. 39,150 11,588,692 Hang-choo-foo. 53,480 25,769,556 Foo-choo-foo. 70,450 33,365,005 Wo-chang-foo. 74,320 21,002,604 Chang-sha-foo, 67,400 8,432,193 Se-gan-foo. 86,608 5.411,188 Lan-choo-foo. 166,800 67.712,897 Ching-too-foo. 79,456 29,706,249 Canton. 78,250 24,534,118 Que-lin-foo. 107.969 11,721,576 Yunnan

64,554 7,669,181 Quei-yang-foo. 1,299.009 382,078,860

The areas and populations are given differently by different authorities, and the total extent is by some stated to be 1,554,000 sq. miles. Peking is the capital. There are many large and populous cities.

Physical Features. Great part of the country is not well known. The coast-line forms an irregular curve of about 2500 miles. It is not deeply penetrated by gulfs, the only one of great extent being that of Pe-che-le in the north-east, but numerous indentations of sufficient dimensions to form safe and capacious roadsteads are found in every quarter. It is characterized by a fringe of islands and islets, the largest of which are Formosa and Hainan. The Gulf of Pe-che-le, the Yellow Sea, and the China Sea wash the eastern and south-eastern shores, and are characterized by the destructive storms called typhoons. The inland boundaries are formed mainly by Tonquin, Burmah, Tibet, and, on the north, partly by the Great Wall separating China from Mongolia, one of the most remarkable of human structures, being an artificial barrier 1500 miles long. Two thirds of the interior are estimated to be mountainous. The general slope is from west to east, and the mountains are a continuation of those of Tibet and Central Asia. The great Kuen-lun range throws off branches, the Tsing-Ling, Fu-niu-shan and Mu-ling, which, running eastward between the great valleys of the Hoang-Ho and Yang-tse-kiang, traverse almost the whole breadth of China. Further north

runs under various names (Kuliang, Alashan, Inshan, &c.) along the north-east of China till it reaches the frontier of Manchuria, north of Peking. The third great mountain system of China is in the south-east, where extensive chains such as the Nanshan, the Ta-yu-ling, and Pu-ling stretch on the south side of the Yang-tse-kiang all the way from the highlands of Yunnan to the eastern sea-board. Between these mountain systems, and following courses which may be roughly described as parallel, run the two great rivers of China, the Hoang-ho and the Yang-tse-kiang. Here lie the central and richest provinces of China. On both sides of the lower Hoang-ho is an immense delta plain, consisting generally of a deep alluvial soil of unparalleled fertility. As they approach the sea-coast the two rivers are connected by the Grand Canal, 700 miles in length, thus completing a magnificent system of inland navigation. The Hoang-ho has changed its lower course several times, and is subject to tremendous and disastrous floods. Besides these rivers and their numerous tributaries, the most deserving of notice are the Se-kiang in the south, of considerable size, but still more commercial importance, having at or near its embouchure Canton, Hong-Kong, and Macao; and the Pei-ho, which, though much smaller, forms a water-way between Peking and the Gulf of Pe-che-le. There are a number of lakes, mostly of no great size; the largest is Tung-ting, near the centre of China, with a circumference of about 270 miles. A remarkable feature of the surface of Northern China is the deposit of loess, a brownish-yellow earth of great fertility, which covers an immense area both of mountain and valley, and enables agriculture to be successfully carried to the height of 7000 or 8000 feet.

Climate. The greater part of China belongs to the temperate zone, but it has what is called an excessive climate. At Peking in summer the heat ranges from 90° to 100° in the shade, while the winter is so cold that the rivers are usually frozen from December to March. At Shanghai, lat. 31° 20', the maximum temperature reaches 100°, and the minimum falls at least to 20° below freezing point (12° Fahr.). In the south the climate is of a tropical character, the summer heat rising to 120°. Here the south-west and north-east monsoons blow with great regularity, and divide the

year between them. Among the greatest scourges of the country are the dreadful gales known as typhoons, from the Chinese Ta-fung, or 'great-wind.' They never fail to commit great devastation, though happily they always give such timely notice of their approach that preparations can be made. The Hoang-ho and Yang-tse-kiang basins have a pretty equable temperature, due to the soft moist winds of the Pacific. Productions. China is well supplied with minerals, including gold, silver, copper, iron, and other metals, and there are very extensive coal-fields, though the quantity raised from them is comparatively small. Salt is abundant, and there are inexhaustible beds of kaolin, or porcelain earth. Among animals it is difficult to mention any that are characteristic of the country; many of them are identical with or differ but little from those of Europe. In the south and south-west the tiger, the rhinoceros, and elephant are found; bears are common in many parts; other carnivora are the wild-cat, badger, lynx, marten, &c. Camels and elephants are used in a domestic state, but the chief domesticated animal is the buffalo. The horses are of a poor breed. Among birds the most beautiful are the gold and silver pheasants. Fish swarm in all inland waters as well as on the coast, the natural supply being immensely increased by artificial means. As regards the flora of China, it is tropical in the south (coco and sago palms, banana, pandanus, &c.), sub-tropical farther north, and still farther north prevails a number of plants and trees identical with or closely akin to those of middle Europe. Flowering plants, shrubs, and trees are so exceedingly abundant as to form a feature. The bamboo, from the immense number of uses to which it is put, is one of the most valuable trees. Oaks, the chestnut, hazel, pines, yew, walnut, &c., are among forest trees. Wax and camphor trees abound. Azaleas are exceedingly numerous; other flowering plants are the camellia rose, passion-flower, cactus, lagerstroemia, &c. Fruits are abundant and varied. The soil, especially of the country comprising the two great river basins, is extremely fertile, and agriculture has always been held in high veneration in China. Rice, as the principal food of the people, is the staple crop. The rich alluvial plains which cover a great part of the surface are admirably adapted for its culture, and by careful management yield amazing erops. In the north there is a variety

called dry-soil rice, which is cultivated like any other cereal. Wheat, barley, and millet are the other chief grain crops. Other crops are maize, buckwheat, a great variety of beans, pease, and pulse generally, sugarcane, tobacco, and vegetables in endless variety, including potatoes, turnips, &c., and at the ports the best European and American vegetables. Varieties of the cabbage tribe are extensively cultivated for the oil extracted from the seeds. Three plants of the greatest economical importance to China are the mulberry, cultivated to provide food for silkworms, cotton, and tea, the last for long regarded as exclusively a Chinese product. Another important crop is the opium poppy, which is extensively grown, though the product is inferior to that of India.

Manufactures. In arts and industry the Chinese have made considerable progress. One peculiar feature in their processes is the general absence of machinery, and the preponderance of manual labour. Among the chief industries is the silk manufacture, which produces some varieties of stuffs unsurpassed anywhere. Everybody wears silks; it is the prescribed attire of high officers. The finer kinds of it form the ordinary dresses of the opulent, while the poorest manage to deck themselves in coarser, if not on common, at least on gala days. The embroidery of silk is carried on to an amazing extent. Cotton goods are also largely made, though great quantities of European and American manufactures are also imported. Flax is not grown, but a good substitute for it is found in the fibres of two or three plants, from which the beautiful grass-cloth, similar in appearance to linen, is extensively woven. Woollens are made only to a limited extent. The porcelain of China has been famous from the earliest periods, and the manufacture of the finest forms of it was long known to the Chinese alone, though their productions are now surpassed by those of Europe. In lacquered ware the Chinese continue unsur passed. In working in metals they have only attained to mediocrity. The metallic products most deserving of notice are gongs, mirrors, statuettes in copper and bronze, and various kinds of carved, chased, and filigree work, both in gold and silver. In a great number of minor articles the workmanship is exquisite-fans, card-cases, seals, combs, chess men of wood, ivory, mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, &c. Paper is made of a great

variety of substances, and the art of making it like various others was practised in China long before Europe acquired it.

Commerce. The inland trade of China, aided by its vast system of water communication, is of incalculable magnitude, the rivers and canals literally swarming with junks, barges, and boats of all sizes. Roads, however, are few and bad, and railways have as yet only made a mere commencement. Telegraphs have made more progress, though the lines as yet do not much exceed 3000 miles. A defective postal system is kept up, partly by the government, partly by private enterprise. By the opening of the principal ports (the 'treaty' ports, twentytwo in number) the foreign commerce has been immensely increased. The chief of these ports are: Shanghai (by far the first), Canton, Hankow, Swatow, Tientsin, Ning-po, and Foo-chow. The main articles of export are tea and raw and manufactured silk; the main imports, cotton goods, opium, metals and metal goods. The total exports and imports usually amount to more than $200,000,000. In the year 1891 the exports amounted to $136,352,540; the imports $135,727,140. Among the countries trading with China the principal are Great Britain, India, Russia, and the U. States. In 1891 Great Britain furnished £6,456,593 of the imports and received £4,713,508 of the exports. The chief article of export to Great Britain is tea, the amount of which from China,exclusive of Hong-Kong and Macao, in 1891 was 57,023,986 lbs. of the value of £2,203,092. In return Great Britain sent to China manufactured cotton and woollen goods of the value of £5,265,235. The quantity of opium imported, almost wholly from India, reaches the value of $25,000,000 or $30,000,000 annually.-Among the standards of weight used are the liang or tael = 14 oz. avoirdupois; the catty1 lbs.; and the picul 1334 lbs. The chih of 14

inches is the standard measure of length; a measure of distance is the li of a mile. There are no national gold and silver coins. The usual unit or denomination of money is the tael, the value of which varies according to the rate of exchange; in 1875 it was $1.50, in 1891 $1.18. Silver bullion, called sycee, and gold bullion, usually stamped with the name of the banker and the year and district in which it is cast, are used in larger transactions. Private bankers are found in all large towns. They issue paper-money, which passes current in the particular districts

where they are known. The Mexican dol lar, of the value of $1, is current in Canton and the south of China.

People. The Chinese belong to the Mongolian race, but in them its harsher features, as represented in the genuine Tartars, are considerably softened. They are generally of low stature, have small hands and feet (the last artificially made so small in the females as to become a deformity), a dark complexion, a wide forehead, black hair, eyes and eyebrows obliquely turned upwards at the outer extremities. In bodily strength they are far inferior to Europeans, but superior to most Asiatics, and their great assiduity and patient endurance of fatigue make them valuable as labourers. They are considered to be deficient in courage. In their moral qualities there is much that is amiable. They are strongly attached to their homes, hold age in respect, toil hard for the support of their families, and in the interior, where the worst kind of foreign intercourse has not debased them, exhibit an unsophisticated simplicity of manners which recalls the age of the patriarchs. In the great mass these qualities are counterbalanced, or rather sup planted, by numerous vices-treachery,lying, and various others. The Chinese use great politeness in their intercourse with each other; but there is perhaps a want of frankness and sincerity. They scrupulously avoid all contradiction and offensive expressions in conversation. Gambling is a universal vice. Drunkenness has hitherto been rare amongst them, but the habit of opium-smoking has much extended of late. But, with many vicious characteristics, the Chinese are preserved from degeneration by their universal frugality and thrift. Hard work, done in the most uncomplaining way, has become second nature with them. Filial piety is also a striking feature of their character, and is, in fact, the principle upon which Chinese society is constituted. They have chambers set apart for the worship of their ancestors, where religious ceremonies are regularly performed.

Language, Religion, &c.-The Chinese is the most important and most widely spread of the so-called monosyllabic languages of Fastern Asia, in which each word is uttered by a single movement of the organs of speech. There is no alphabet, each word being represented by a single symbol or character. These written characters appear to have been originally hieroglyphics or rude copies of the objects designed to be