C. On this account, that I may be able to console you, or aid (juvare) you with advice or money. M. I will tell you all. C. But meanwhile lay down your rake; stop working. M. Certainly not; let me alone; I do not want rest. C. I will not let you alone; now speak. M. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. "W, H. P." should not be impatient. If he really wants to acquire the language, he must master the principles of pronunciation. The lessons in Grammar proper commence with the article in Number 11. Veneroni's and Zotti's are old grammars, which were much used in their day. They are deficient in practical utility, grammatical tuition in foreign languages having made great progress since they were written. The lessons in the "Popular have an only son; ah! what did I say? I have? nay, I had; Educator" are intended for two classes of readers. 1. For those who desire a whether I have now or not is uncertain. What then? M. You shall know. Page 202.-ENGLISH-LATIN. Cicerone es? non vero, sed Lentulus; num Cicero es? minime; vix credam patrem jam nullum esse; nullus est; ubi est? nusquam non est; ita ubi? cum Deo; quis es? Johannes sum; nonne Jacobus? non vero, Jacobus abiit domum; utrum Jacobus aut Johannes sis meâ non refert; sane venit pater; ne pater veniat metuo; veniet necne? venturus necne sit soror ignoro; utrum gaudeam necne, nihil tuâ refert; domum abis, aut alio? unde venit avis? inde; quo volat avis? eo; ubi es (art)? hic; ubi est frater? illic; ubi est rex ibi regina. Page 216.-LATIN-ENGLISH. Cato whom when an old man I knew; neither the spears nor the very long swords which they use with both hands, were of service to the Sarmatians; take pleasure in moderate feasts with men of my own age, very few of whom however remain; Agamemnon, when he had to devote to Diana the most beautiful product of his kingdom, immolated Iphigenia; examples, and those not ancient ones, are sought after; the enemy were cut to pieces in one battle, and that an easy one; the Gauls despised the legion not having its complement of men, on account of the small number of its soldiers; I knew Crassus as being, and that from his boyhood, given to the best studies; I alone saw thy friend; I did not con. verse with him; we are not born for ourselves only; Hannibal was the first to go into battle, and when the conflict came, he was the last to leave it; the wolf prowls by night about the flocks; I first read and then copied that oration; you see me to-day for the last time; Sylla was constantly present at the works, in the main body of the army, and with the sentries; in no way did Sextus lay down his arms (retire from the army.) Page 216.-ENGLISH-LATIN. Religione deleta, in tenebris est mundus; mortua uxor tua tibi attulit magnum moestum; ad legendum Ciceronem venerunt discipuli; hoc legendo libro doetus fio; bibliis sacris legendis sapientes fiunt homines; ad mihi domum aedificandam fratrem conduxi tuum (or domum aedificandam locavi fratri tuo); nihil sine deo oriri mihi est exploratum (or exploratum habeo); Romam visurus eo vestes aliquas misi; te ridentem viderunt; libros legentes discipulos vidit paedagogus; puer urbem intravit, senex reliquit. Page 235.-LATIN-ENGLISH. Jugurtha will be obedient to your commands; envy arose from opulence; Numa Pompilius was appointed king; the Tyrians inquired whether Alexander was greater than Neptune; we saw them burning with both cupidity and fear; he gave the man money; he accused the citizen of treason; we judge ooally pain by the mind; we do not feel mental disease in the body; his life is full of plots; Flaccus coming from Asia entered Macedonia; it is certain that the man who breathes, is alive, and that he who lives, breathes; the poet errs when he ascribes a good speech to a bad man; Zeno is of opinion that the natural law is divine; the human figure excels the form of all living beings; abundance of matter begets abundance of words; the inventions of necessity are older than those of pleasure; I seek from philosophers a remedy for grief; by concord small things grow, by discord the greatest waste away; friendship makes prosperity more shining and adversity more light; cruelty is very adverse to human nature, which we ought to follow; I will teach thee the other appointments of life. Page 235.-ENGLISH-LATIN. thorough scientific knowledge. 2. For those who only desire to know enough to be able to read and speak readily. The practical exercises in the grammar proper will not fail fully to satisfy the second class of readers as well, and will speak for themselves. A really good Italian dictionary is a desideratum in this country. Baretti's and Petronj's are the best, but expensive. Graglia's Pocket Dictionary may perhaps serve the purposes of "W. H. P." ΖΕΝΟ: Στρατιωτης and επιμελεσθαι are the correct forms. The conjectures with regard to the geography of Greece are also correct. The numbers of English miles appended to the scale of the map of Greece are ten times too great, owing to a mistake of the engraver. Your writing does you great credit. UN ELEVE (Birmingham): San should be sans. Dodecalogue means Twelve Laws or Rules, and in every two lines of the Dodecalogue de l'Amitié, p. 76, you will find a new rule, making twelve in all. Gazons fleuris means flowery parterres, or green plots covered with flowers.-W. G. B. (Lincoln): See the Life of Mary, Queen of Scots, by Allan Cunningham, price ls. 6d. -ETA DELTA (Liverpool): Do with solid food as Solomon advises every one to do with honey, see Proverbs xxv. 16.-ESPERANCE (Dublin): If you send any contribution as an author to a Magazine, the Editor will surely publish it, if it be found well-written (composed), and worthy of the subject of which it professes to treat. Every gentlemanly Editor would, of course, send you private notice of his approbation or disapprobation of the article you sent him, and not keep you in unnecessary suspense. We only hope that your laudable ambition to be an author is well founded. You should consult some accomplished literary friend on this point before you subject yourself to the pain of a disappointment. MUSIC.-There remain only two articles to complete the course on vocal music. The last lesson on the common "notation" gives a fuller account of that subject than is usual in elementary works, and supplies answers to most of our correspondents, whose queries arose from difficulties in connection with notation. Had space permitted, we should have been glad to deal fully with the many interesting letters we have received, chiefly from working men, on the subject of the Monochord and the structure of the scale, indicating a love for mechanical contrivances in connection with scientific study, greater than even we had anticipated. Some, however, have made the strange mistake of measuring their monochord by the "scale of fiftythree degrees. The proportionate lengths of string had been given distinctly (see the lesson) in our previous column. It had also been stated that the number of vibrations to each note was in inverse proportion to the length of the strings. In other words, the higher the note the shorter the string, and the more numerous the vibrations by which it is produced. But it is plain that, while this length of string and number of vibrations can be actually measured or counted, the difference of pitch between one sound and another is not a thing that we can really measure or count. The scale of fifty-three degrees, or more correctly (see the article) of 474 differences, is an arithmetical abstraction, arising out of the proportionate lengths of string on the one hand, and the proportionate vibrations on the other, an abstraction very useful in giving a clear and true idea of what cannot be measured in reality (the degrees of pitch), but still an abstraction. In the same way, comparative shades of colour cannot be literally measured or numbered, but it might be very useful to represent these differences of shade by a scale of numbers, the truth of that scale being founded on the relative quantities of the pigments compounded, while in physical reality it has no existence, and is only a useful abstraction. The letter of Opifer (who says, he set to study our lessons "in earnest, obedient as a slave, and docile as a little child," and immediately gets angry with us for not "squaring exactly with his own preconceived and superficial notions of music), we did not notice at the time, thinking it insincere. It may have sprung, however, from a more innocent weakness. A Lover of Music can obtain all Mr. Cur wen's works at Messrs. Ward and Co.'s, Paternoster Row, and from Mr. Robert Griffiths, Plaistow, Essex, he can obtain a list of all the teachers and classes in the metropolis connected with our "method." These are very numerous, and increasing in number. Crito should study the chapter on "Melody" in the Grammar of Vocal Music (2s. 6d. Ward and Co.), or "Hamil ton's Catechism of Counterpoint Melody and Composition "(28. Cocks and Co.) He should learn to adapt the accent of his music to that of his poetry. We have been greatly interested in the case of a lady, now sixty years of age, once not undistinguished on the stage, who has for many years maintained herself by street singing, and whose chief pleasure even now is the study of languages and science. She pursues these studies while singing mechani cally before the mansions of the nobility. She was some numbers behind in her" Popular Educator." We know this to be a true case. Will any one help her? To a number of correspondents we have sent private replies, in order to save space and repetition here. Not a few ask us questions which they should rather put to some musical instrument maker or music seller, whose business and pleasure it would be to reply. Mr. Curwen will welcome correspondence from the students of his lessons in the P. E. addressed to him at Plaistow, Essex, He will reply to them as fully as time and oppor tunity may permit. ERRATA. and that the distance of such points is as nothing, when compared with. Verbum mihi dixit; tibi? non vero, zed patri; patri verbum dixit; unum? non vero, sed duo; duo verba dixit patri meo; nonne sorori locutus est ? minime, suae uxori; utilia loqui melius Vol. IV. p. 45, col. 2, after line 1, insert circumference is about 4,000 miles; est quam silere; post hominum memoriam maxima haec est conflagratio; cum metu semper loqui se incipere dicit Cicero; religio sola ad beate vivendum sufficit; sufficiuntne divitiae ad beate vivendum? pergite, discipuli, inquit magister, et discite quam plurima. p. 47, col. 1, line 11, after cannot insert bul. p.81, col. 2, line 25, for slower read faster. p. 81, col. 2, line 8 from bottom, for 2g read g. p. 82, col, 2, art 4, also for 2g read g. LESSONS IN GEOLOGY.-No. XLVII. BY THOS. W. JENKYN, D.D., F.R.G.S., F.G.S., &c. CHAPTER V. ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE ROCKS IN THE EARTH'S CRUST. SECTION I. A TABULAR VIEW OF ROCKS IN THE VERTICAL ORDER IN WHICH THEY OCCUR. 7 The Maestricht Beds. S. Upper White Chalk. 9. Lower Chalk. The boulder formation or northern drift. Limestone of Girgenti, in Sicily. Sands, clays, and gravels, consisting of fragments of The red crag, and the coralline crag of Suffolk, con- The Faluns of Touraine. Some of the beds at Bourdeaux, in France. Part of the molasse of Switzerland. The upper marine beds of Paris Basin, and the sand stones of Fontainebleau. The millstone rocks of the same place. The tile-clays, near Berlin. The tertiary beds about Mayence. The gypsum of Paris. Fresh water limestone, and beds of clays and sands, The Barton beds. The Calcaire Grossier of Paris. Sands, sandstones, gravel of flint pebbles, with beds of Mottled and plastic clays, with flint pebbles. VOL. IV. 90 Loose sand, with bright green particles, and sandstone Warminster; Devizes; Wantage; Shafts with particles of iron. Freestone of Merstham. Dark-blue clay, or marl, with small concretions of stone, and many fossils. Sands with green particles, and sandstones with beds of chert. Sands white, yellowish, and ferruginous or irony, with concretions of limestone. A limestone, called the Kentish rag. § II. THE WEALDEN. Clays, with occasional bands of limestone. Sands, with calciferous or limy grits and clays. § III. THE OOLITE. bury. Merstham, in Surrey; Kent. Folkstone; Maidstone; Isle of Wight; Devizes. Black Down, Devor, &c. Atherfield, Isle of Wight. Maidstone, in Kent. Wealds of Kent, Sussex, and Surrey. Portland stone, a gritty limestone, with beds and nodules Isle of Portland, Swindon, Aylesbury. of chert. Portland sands. Kimmeridge clay, a blue shaly clay, with nodules of Kelloway rock, a coarse and sandy limestone, with many fossils. Cornbrash, an imperfect limestone, sometimes blue and Forest marble, a coarse, slaty limestone, full of shells. Great oolite, a yellow freestone, with fragments of shells. Stonesfield slate, a kind of slate partly limy, partly Inferior oolite, a coarse, limy freestone, and yellow IV. THE LIAS. White lias limestone, often blue. A blue slaty marl and clay. The limestone full of fossil bones of reptiles. § v. THE TRIAS. The keuper of Germany; variegated marbles, red, gray, A limestone, compact and grayish, sometimes called Bunter sandstein, or variegated sandstone of Germany. Part of the new red sandstone, and the rock salt beds; Lower new red sandstone of the north of England, and Durham; Warwickshire; Staffordshire. the Rothliegendes of Germany Names of Groups according to LYELL. 23. Coal Measures. 24. Upper Devonian. 25. Lower Devonian. 26. Upper Silurian. 27. Lower Silurian. 28. Cambrian Rocks. 29. Chlorite Schist. 30. Mica Schist. 31. Granite. 32. Trap Rocks. A rock composed of crystalline grains of quartz, feldspar, Aberdeen; Dartmoor; Land's End. Unstratified and crystalline rocks, which, in a molten 168 The Areometer of Baumé.-This areometer, which was invented The following diagram will assist you in learning the position by M. Baumé, of Paris, is one of those having a constant and the order of different formations, from the surface soil down to the crystalline and granite rocks, which are supposed to be bulb full of air having tensively used. It consists constant below the strata marked v diagram. Fig. 103. An Ideal S ction of the Stratified Rocks, in their vertical order of position. A. Alluvial Soil. B. Erratic Blocks, and Till. c. The Pleistocene. D. The Pleiocene. E. The Meiocene. F. The Eocene. G. The Chalk Formation. H. The Quadersandstein. 1. The Neocomien. J. The Wealden. K. The Oolite. L. The Lias. M. The Keuper. N. The Muschelkalk. o. The Buntersandstein. a. New Red Sandstone, or R. The Coal Measures. s. The Mountain Limestone. having a graduated stem, with a smaller bulb below it full of mercury to ballast the apparatus when floating in a liquid, fig. 39. This instrument is differently graduated Fig. 39. according as it is intended for liquids denser than water, or for liquids lighter than water. In the former case the weight is so regulated that in distilled water, at the maximum density, it sinks nearly to the upper extremity of the stem, and is in equilibrium at a point marked zero. In order to graduate the stem, fill a vessel with a solution consisting of 85 parts of water by weight, and 15 parts of sea salt. This solution being denser than pure water, the instrument will sink in it only as far as the point B, which is then marked 15. Next, dividing the interval between the points A and B into fifteen equal parts, and continuing the divisions to the bottom of the stem, the instrument is graduated. The divisions are marked on a small slip of paper placed in the interior of the glass stem. The areometer thus constructed can be employed only for T. The Devonian, or Old liquids denser than water, such as acids and saline solutions, Red Sandstone. U. The Silurian. V. The Cambrian. ON PHYSICS OR NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. No. XII. AREOMETERS OF VARIABLE VOLUME. Different kinds of Areometers.-The areometers of Nicholson and Fahrenheit, described in our last lesson, may be defined as those which have a constant volume and a variable weight, because they are always immersed to the same depth in the liquid, and weights are placed on their scale or cup, according to the weight of the solid or the liquid whose specific weight is to be determined. Areometers are also constructed having a variable volume and a constant weight; that is, having no fixed point of immersion level on the stem, and preserving always the same weight. These apparatus, known under the names of hydrometers, scale-areometers, or liquor-tests, are not intended to ascertain the specific weights of liquids, but to determine the strength of saline solutions, acids, and alcohols. being both an acid-test and a salt-test. For liquids not so dense as water, the zero being placed at the bottom of the rod, the graduation is reversed. Baumé determined the zero point of the instrument by its immersion in a solution of 90 parts of water by weight with 10 parts of sea-salt, the point marked 10 on the scale being that which indicated its depth in distilled water. Dividing then the interval between these two points into 10 equal parts, and continuing the divisions to the top of the stem, the instrument is graduated, and becomes a liquor test. These areometers being graduated in a manner entirely arbitrary, indicate neither the densities of the liquids, nor the quantities of salt held in solution. Yet they are usefully employed in ascertaining when a saline or acid solution has been brought to a point of fixed concentration, or a certain degree of strength. The graduation of these instruments assists much in the rapid formation of mixtures and solutions in given proportions, not with very great precision, but with a sufficient approximation in a great number of practical cases. For example, in the manufacture of common syrups, it has been found that the salt-test of Baumé should stand at the mark 35 on the scale as the point of level, in a syrup of proper strength when cool. Thus the manufacturer is furnished with an instrument with which he can readily test the degree of concentration in his syrups. In like manner, in sea-water at the temperature of 829 F., the hydrometer of Baumé stands at the mark 3 on the scale, indicating that the water is of that degree of strength proper for saline baths ordered to patients in certain diseases. The solutions of seasalt and water, which physicians prescribe, are in general much weaker than that indicated by the proper degree on the instrument; that is, the artificial saline baths have not that degree of saltness which the natural sea-water has, and are not therefore sufficiently efficacious in producing a cure. |