I'-o vá-do nél-la cór-te, nel pa-láz-zo, nel teu-tro, nel lêt-to, nél-la souô-la, nél-la cá-sa. I'-o vá-do a cór-te, a pa-láz20, a ted-tro, a lit-to, a scuô-la, là cd-8. I go into the court-yard, | tre vôl-te. Il sú-o a-vé-re con-sí-ste pár-te in da-na-ro, e párinto the palace, into the play- te in bê-ni stá-bi-li. E' ve-nú-to in per-só-na. Do-ve-va house, into the bed, into the stá-re in piê-di. E-gli si mí-se in gi-no-chió-ni. Es-se-re in school, i. C. (building), into buô-na sa-lú-te. An-dá-re in bát-ca. In nó-me di Di-o the house. Stanza, f., room, chamber. Sono, I am. Se ne stamperanno, will be printed. Carta, f., paper (carta velina, vellum-paper). Voi siete, you are. Quasi, almost, nearly, well Fiore, flower, bloom, prime. Porto, port, harbour. season, for pleasure or recreation Avete avuto, you have had. or sport (essere in villegia-Scritto, writing (in iscritto, in In addition to these uses, in has some indefinite meanings, which will admit of several prepositions or adverbial expressions for the purpose of translating them into English; e. g. in : no-mi-na-re, di-re qual-che cô-sa in la-ti-no, to name, say something in Latin; spe-rd-re in Di-o, to hope in God; in ma-niera tá-le, in such a manner;-on or upon: por-tá-re qual-che cô-sa in dos-so, in tê-sta, in cor-po, to carry something on one's back or shoulders, or about one's self, on the head, on the body; por-tá-re scar-pe in piê-di, to wear shoes on one's feet; la pá-squa è sêm-pre in u-na Do-mé-ni-ca, Easter is always on a Sunday; é-gli mí-se un' a-nél-lo in di-to, he put or placed a ring on his finger; ab-bat-ter-si in u-no, to light on one, meet him by chance; di-stên-de-re qual-che cô-sa in cár-ta, to pen or note something on paper;-round: gli git-tò il brác-cio in côl-lo (for in-tór-no il côl-lo), he clasped him with the arm round his neck; més-so-li ú-na ca-té-na in gỗ-la (for in-tor-no la gó-la), after having put a chain round his neck;-to: le cac-ciò di côl-le in côl-le, he chased them from hill to hill; di têm-po in têm-po, from Egli va, he goes. time to time; con-fic-cd-re in ú-na cró-ce, to fasten or nail Camera, chamber, room. something to a cross;-towards: in me mo-ven-do de bê-gli Scozia, Scotland. éc-chj i rá-i, turning towards me the rays of her beautiful eyes; Turchia, Turkey. -of against: vi-de in se ri-vôl-to il pô-po-lo, he saw the people Morirono amendue, both died. rebelling against him;-at: guar-dá-re in ú-no, to look at Ora, hour. one; in place of: a-dot-tá-re ú-no in fi-gliub-lo, to take one in Tu eri, thou wast. place of a son, to adopt one ;-as: dá-re qual-che cô-sa in dó-Cè nissuno, is nobody. no ad ú-no, to give one something as a present; di-re qual-che Cortile, court-yard. có-sa in sú-a scu-sa, to plead something as one's apology or Cucina, kitchen. Excuse; o Di-o, non m' im-pu-tár-lo in pec-cá-to, O Lord, do not Cantina, cellar. impute it to me as a sin; e-lès-se-ro in Pa-pa il Cardi-nál Ma-sta-i-Fer-rêt-ti nel mil-le ôt-to-cen- to qua-rán-ta-se-i, They elected Cardinal Mastai-Ferretti as pope in 1846; adverbial expressions: in av-ve-ni-re, in future, for the future, henceforth; in fát-ti, indeed, in fact, in reality; in frét-ta, in a hurry, hastily; in 6-gni con-to, at any rate, at all events; in fuc-cia, to one's face. EXERCISES.-ITALIAN-ENGLISH. - El-la è nél-la stán-za vi-cí-na. Só-no quá-si in pôr-to. E-gli è in A'u-stria, in I-tá-lia, in cam-pá-gna, in vil-leg-giatú-ra. E-gli va nel giar-dí-no; in quél-la cá-me-ra; in Frán-cia; in cam-på-gna; in I-scô-zia; in Tur-chí-a. Morí-ro-no a-men-dú-e in un giór-no e in un' ó-ra. Tu ê-ri in chiê-sa. C'è nis-sú-no in cá-sa? E-gli è nel cor-tí-le, nél-la cu-cí-na, nél-la can-tí-na. E' an-da-to in chiê-sa, in cit-tà, in piáz-za, in o-ste-ri-a, in teú-tro. A-bi-tá-va in quél-la cá-sa.| Lo tro-vá-i in lêt-to. An-tô-nio è in côl-le-ra con me. Se ne pár-la in tút-ta la cit-tà. E par-tí-to in frét-ta. Vi è an-dáto in car-rôz-za. Do-ma-ni po-tré-mo an-dár in i-slit-ta. E'ssi só-no sor-ti-ti in qué-sto pún-to. A-des-so siê-te nél-le mí-e má-ni. Lo pre-vên-ni in pún-ta di piê-di e qui l' a-spêtto. I'-o mi ri-pô-so nél-la ca-pa-ci-tà di mí-o fra-têl-lo. Alquán-te cô-pie se ne stam-pe-rán-no in cár-ta ve-li-na. Voi siê-te nel fiór dé-gli án-ni. A-vé-te a-vú-to bêl têm-po nel vô-stro viág-gio. In i-serít-to ; in i-stá-to. In prí-mo luô-go;| in fón-do. In pa-ra-gó-ne di noi é-gli è an-có-ra fe-li-ce. In mêz-zo del (or al) paé-se. In mé-no d' un' ó-ra. In sé-guito (dó-po fát-to; pôi). In cá-so di bi-só-gno; in ó-gni cá-so. In prin-cí-pio. In av-ve-ni-re. Nell' ó-ra stés-sa. In fôr-za (or in vir-tù) d' un trat-tá-to. Nel têm-po stés-so. In nis-súna ma-niê-ra. Nel cuộn dél-la Rús-sia. Nel cuộn dell’invêr-no. Nel cuôr dél-la stá-te. In ve-ri-tà; in fat-ti (or di fát-ti). Te lo dí-ce in fác-cia. In sú-a vé-ce, in sú-o luô-go. In qué-sto -mô-do, in tal mô-do. Tut in un trát-to, ad un trát-to. In tá-li cir-con-stán-ze. In ví-sta di ciò. In ór-dine à ciò, che vi hô dét-to. In fa-vó-re dell' ac-cu-sá-to. Inci-só-re in rá-me. Pe-11-to in ár-te. Ca-stêl-li in á-ria. Dottó-re in ám-be le lég-gi. In têm-po di guêr-ra. Nel têm-po dell’ úl-ti-ma guêr-ra. Vi stá-và cól-lẽ brác-cia in cró-ce. Tôr-to in ár-co. In o-nó-re dél-la vir-tú. Có-me si dí-ee qué-sto in in-glé-se? in i-ta-liá-no? Vuo-to il bic-chiê-re in | moment. Adesso, now. Lo prevenni, I came before Punta, point (of anything).. E qui l'aspetto, and here I Copia, f., abundance, plenty; Stato, state, condition (in ista- Luogo, space, spot, place (in Paragone, comparen, paral- Mezzo, middle, midst (in mezzo, Di, than. Seguito, suite, train, attend- Fatto, deed, fact, action. same. Forza, force, power, strength. Trattato, treaty. Maniera, manner (in nissuna Cuore, heart, centre, middle, | Castello, castle. midst, summit. State, summer. Inverno, winter. Verità, truth. Te lo dice, he tells it you. Tratto, draught, pull, throw, effort). Circonstanza, circumstance. Vista, sight, appearance (in vista di, in or with respect to, with regard to, in consideration of). Ciò, that. Aria, air. Dottore, doctor. Agreeable company, ag-gra- | This note, qué-sto bi gliét-to, m. Ambe, pl. f., both. (i.e.civil and | Passes very quickly, pás-sa as canonical). arm. Croce, cross (braccia in croce, Come si dice questo, how is that Inglese, English. Volta, time. sá-i pré-sto Is nobody? c' è nis-sú-no? Has gone out, è u-sci-to m. You have had, voi a-vé-te a- Fine weather, bêl têm-po, m. Direction, in-di-ríz-zo, m, That sideboard, quell' ar-má In some respects, per di-ver-si Never is better known than, non si co-nó-sce má-i mê-glio che Play, giuô-co, m. Anger, col-le-ra, f. Your journey, il vo-stro viág-Drunkenness, ub-bria-chéz-za gio, m. You will have, él-la a-vrà (ts), f. CORRESPONDENCE. TONIC SOL-FA ASSOCIATION. We have received the following notice, which we have much pleasure in submitting to our readers. "At a meeting of friends of the Tonic Sol-fa Association held on Tuesday Evening, Dec. 20th, 1853, at 4, Grocer's Hall Court, Bene stabile, immoveable, real Poultry, Rev. J. TREVITT, M.A, Incumbent of St. Philip, Friar's estate. E' venuto, he has come. Ordine, order (in ordine a, in Che vi ho detto, what I have Egli si mise, he fell. or Ginocchioni Essere, to be. COLLOQUIAL EXERCISES.-ENGLISH-ITALIAN, The garden of my uncle is very large. We have seen thy father's table and bed. Have you found thy father's umbrella? Have you reI have received this cloak from my aunt. ceived a book from this child? We have lent our umbrella to your brother. Have you found this pen in your school? We have written a letter to our uncle and to our aunt. Your mother has given a cap to my sister. Have you seen a little child in our garden? ENGLISH-ITALIAN. Mount, in the chair, it was unanimously resolved: "That the generous and disinterested labours of the Rev. JOHN CURWEN for the diffusion of a knowledge of Vocal Music, call for a Testimonial of regard and esteem from the members and friends of the Tonic Sol-fa Association, and the classes connected with it." A Sub-committee having been appointed for carrying out the arrangements for the above purpose, such of our readers as wish to testify their sense of the improvements in Music introduced to public notice by Mr Curwen, can communicate with the Secretary of the Tonic Sol-fa Association, ROBERT GRIFFITHS, Milton Cottage, Plaistow, Essex. It is not considered necessary that the proposed Testimonial should be of great pecuniary worth, but it is thought that all who have derived benefit from the valuable method of teaching to sing introduced by him, will be glad to unite in this expression of their respect for him, and their earnest desire for his success in the great work he has undertaken. Post Office orders for this object, made payable at the Chief Office, St. Martin's Le Grand, to Rev. JAMES TREVITT, will be duly acknowledged. The unfortunate find consolation in hope. In books we find the means of becoming learned. Your sister is not in the room, she must either have gone into the kitchen or into the cellar. Shall we go to take our breakfast in the summerhouse? In an agreeable company, time passes very quickly.and we can recommend the Lessons in Penmanship" contained in the Is nobody in the castle? No, the steward has gone out (in) this moment. You have had fine weather in your journey. You will have in this note the count's direction. He hid the key in that side-board. A FATHERLESS SUBSCRIBER (Salop): We feel both for him and his sister; P. E. in preference to any other, as we got them up ourselves, and king their value. It is true that we were grievously disappointed in the printing of them, for they are not so nicely printed as we expected; but they are good for all that. Next, our friend should advise his sister to study the Lessons in English" in the P. E., and after that the "Lessons in French," besides Arithmetic, Geography, &c., all contained in the P. E.-J. HALLAM (Liverpool): The difference between the words impracticable and impossible seems according to usage to be this; the former means what cannot be done by reason of some let or hindrance; the latter what cannot be done according to the nature of things. ON PHYSICS OR NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. No. XXI. (Continued from page 292.) PNEUMATIC AND HYDRAULIC MACHINES. Rarefaction and Compression of Gases.-The rarefaction of the air is effected in the following manner, by means of a suctionpump, fig. 93, in which F is the suction-pipe. This pipe communicates, at its lower extremity, with the receiver or vessel in which the air is to be rarefied; and at its upper extremity, with the barrel or body of the pump D. The piston P, which moves up and down in the barrel by means of the piston-rod, is furnished with a valve in the middle, just under the semicircular piece to which the rod is fastened, and similar to the valve s (seen in the figure at the bottom of the barrel), which covers the upper extremity of the suction-pipe. Both valves open upwards and close downwards. When the piston p is raised, the valve s opens, the air contained in the receiver passes through the tube P into the barrel, and is there rarefied or expanded. When the piston is lowered, the valve s, closes, and the air in the barrel between this valve and the piston is condensed; it then forces open the valve in the piston and escapes through the spout E, into the atmosphere. In this manner, every stroke of the piston rarefies the air in the receiver. Thus, it appears that the common suction-pump is in its principle and construction a veritable air-pump, as will appear by the description of the latter in the following paragraph. Nevertheless, for ordinary purposes, many simple and handy air-pumps are made on the principle just described. In order to construct a pump which shall condense the air or any other gas, we have only to construct the valves so that they shall work in an opposite direction to that in which they work in fig. 93; but this, also, will be more fully explained in a subsequent paragraph, pump, and thus rendered the working of the machine more Fig. 93. P rapid and less laborious, the atmospheric pressure which acted on both pistons tending to produce an equilibrium. The air-pump, as now constructed, is composed of two brass cylinders (strong glass in our engraving, to show the construction), in each of which works a piston r, fig. 94, formed of several discs of leather, put one above another, and greased so as to completely exclude the air while moving up and down in the cylinders. To each piston is fastened a rack, in the teeth of which a pinion H, fig. 95, is made to work alternately from left to right, and from right to left, by means of a winch or Lever MN; so that when one of the pistons is raised the other is lowered, and vice versa. 8. The two barrels are cemented at the bottom to a brass support, which is furnished with a plate D, fig. 94; upon this plate stands a strong bell-shaped glass, with a ground edge, the former being sometimes called the platen, and the latter the receiver. It is in the receiver that the vacuum is to be made, or that the air is to be rarefied; in the centre o of the platen, there is an opening which forms a communication between the interior of the receiver and the barrels of the pump, by means of a tube represented in plan, in fig. 95, and dividing itself into two branches, K cbs, and Kedo. In fig. 96, there is a representation of a vertical and anterior section of the barrels. It shows how the pinion н, worked by the lever MN, conveys the motion to the two racks, and consequently to the pistons P and Q. These pistons are not solid; in their interior is a cylindrical cavity closed at bottom by a small valve which has a weak spring. The cavity in which the valves are placed communicates with the upper part of the barrel by an aperture above the valve which is always open to the atmosphere for the egress of the air. Besides the valves placed in the interior of the pistons, two other valves o and s are placed at the bottom of the barrels. These valves are conical, and are each fixed to an iron rod, which easily slides up and down through the pistons. These barrels open and shut alternately the communication between the barrels and the receiver. If the piston P, for example, descends, it draws with it the iron rod and shuts the valves; if it rises, the rod and the valve are raised, but only a small height, because that this rod is of such a air which is below is gradually compressed until its elastic force exceeding the pressure of the atmosphere, raises the valve in the interior of the piston. The compressed air then passes above the piston, and, by the aperture in the top of the piston, escapes into the atmosphere. When the piston reaches the bottom of its course, all the air which had been withdrawn from the receiver is expelled. At the second stroke of the piston, the same series of operations takes place in succession in both barrels, until a limit has been reached, when the air which comes from the receiver is so rarefied that it can no longer raise the interior valve of the piston, even when the piston is at the bottom of the barrel." The Siphon-Gauge.-When the operation of pumping the air has been continued for a certain time, the elastic force of the air which remains in the receiver is measured by the difference of level which the mercury shows in the two branches of a tube bent in the form of an inverted siphon, the one branch being open and the other shut, as in the siphon-barometer. This appendage to the air-pump, when properly filled with mercury, is fixed on a vertical scale and placed under B, fig. 94, a small glass receiver of its own, which communicates with the platen receiver E by means of the tube which connects the aperture c in the platen with the barrels of the pump. Now, before any air has been withdrawn from the receiver, its elastic force balances the column of mercury in the siphon-gauge, and it is then full; but in proportion as the air is rarefied by the action of the pistons, the elastic force diminishes, and then it can no longer balance the column of mercury. This column sinks, and the mercury approaches the same level in both branches. If an absolute vacuum were obtained, the mercury 0. length that it soon strikes the top of the barrel, and then it only slides in the piston which afterwards rises by itself. In order to understand the working of the machine, it will be sufficient to consider what takes place in one of the barrels, since they are both alike. When the piston a, for instance, is first at the bottom of the cylinder, it is raised by the action of the winch, and it then draws with it the rod and the valve As to the valve which is in the interior of the piston, it remains closed while the latter is raised in consequence of its own weight and that of the atmosphere; for the tops of the barrels are pierced with small apertures m and n, by which the exterior pressure is conveyed. According to this arrangement of the valves, there is a tendency to the production of a vacuum below the piston as it moves upwards; but the air in the receiver, yielding to the law of its elasticity, passes partly into the barrel through the orifice o. If, for example, the volume of the barrel is of that of the receiver, then of the quantity of air in the latter passes into the barrel. When the piston moves downwards, the rod of the valve o is drawn down, this valve shuts, and the air in the barrel does not return into the receiver. The piston continuing its motion downwards, the Fig. 97. would reach exactly the same level; for there would be no pressure on it in either branch of the gauge. But with the best constructed machines, the level in the shut branch is always higher than that in the open branch, by about part of an inch, which shows that the vacuum is not perfect, and that there still remains a quantity of air, whose tension balances a column of mercury of about one-twenty-fifth part of an inch in height. It is evident that practically the air-pump cannot produce an absolute vacuum, because, as has been already observed, there is a limit where the air which remains in the receiver becomes so rarefied, that even when the pistons are at the bottom of the barrels, its elastic force cannot overcome the atmospheric pressure on the valves in the interior of the pis tons, and consequently they can no longer be opened for the expulsion of the air from the receiver. Even theoretically, an absolute vacuum is impossible, because if, for example, the volume of each barrel is of that of the receiver, there is withdrawn, at every stroke of the piston, only of the quantity of air which remains in the receiver; consequently, the air which it contains can never completely be withdrawn. It can be shown, indeed, by an easy calculation, that it would require an infinite number of strokes of the piston to make a perfect vacuum in the receiver. sible before the application of the stop-cock with the double passage. Now, each time that we can thus open the valve a, some air is expelle). Substances liable to fermentation have been kept for a very long time in a vacuum, without the slightest alteration in their state, because they were not exposed to contact with oxygen, which is necessary to this process. Alimentary substa ices have been preserved for a long time in bottles hermetically sealed, in which a vacuum has been previously made; and they have been found as fresh at the end of several years as they were the first day they were sealed. Improved Stop-Cock.-M. Robinet has applied to the airpump a stop-cock which admits of the rarefaction of the air Use of the Air-pump.-A considerable number of experimente being carried to a very great extent. This stop-cock is placed with the air-pump have been already explained in former at the point where the connecting tube between the receiver lessons; such as the shower of mercury, the fall of bodies in a and the two barrels separates into two branches, and it is per- vacuum, the expansion of a flaccid bladder in a vacuum, the forated by several passages, which are successively used in bladder-glass, the Magdeburg hemispheres, and the baroscope. working, by turning it in two different directions. Fig. 95 The air-pump serves also to prove that the air, in consequence represents a horizontal section of this stop-cock R, in such a of the oxygen which it contains, is necessary to the support of position, that by its central aperture, and its two lateral aper- combustion and of animal life. For example, if we place tures, it establishes a communication between the orifice k in under the receiver, any lighted body, such as a candle, we see the platen, and the valves o and s. The machine then works the flame diminishing as the exhaustion advances, and very as already described. In fig. 98, the stop-cock has been moved soon becoming extinguished. In like manner, an animal round by a quarter of a turn, and the transverse passage db, placed under the receiver, first becomes motionless, and then which was horizontal in fig. 95, is now vertical, and its orifices dies, as the air within it becomes more and more rarefied. are shut by the sides of the tube. But a second passage, which Mammifers and birds die at once in a vacuum. Fishes and was not used at first, and which has taken the place of the reptiles can bear the want of air for a considerable time; and former, now puts the barrel on the right alone in communica-insects have been allowed to remain in a vacuum several days tion with the receiver by the passage cbs, fig. 93; and it also without losing their vitality. puts the barrel on the right in communication with that on the left by a passage a eo fig. 98, or a ico fig 97. This passage proceeds from a central aperture a placed at the bottom of the barrel on the right, and terminates at the valve o of the other barrel, passing through the stop-cock, as represented in figs. 89 and 90; but the same passage is shut by the stop-cock, when the latter is in its former position, as shown in figs. 95 and 96. This arrangement being understood, when the piston on the right is raised, the air is withdrawn from the receiver; but when it is lowered, the air which is withdrawn is now forced into the barrel on the left, through the orifice a, the passage ci, and the valve o, fig. 97, which is then open. When after this, the piston on the right is raised, that on the left is lowered, but the air which is below does not return into the barrel on the right, because the valve o is now shut. The piston on the right continuing thus to draw air from the receiver and to throw it into the barrel on the left, the air is accumulated in the latter, and reaches a tension sufficient to raise the valve of the piston Q, a thing which was impos Fig. 100. The fountain in a vacuum, represented in fig. 99, is also an experiment which is performed with the air-pump, and which is employed to prove the expansive force of air. This is simply a bottle containing water and air. The mouth of the bottle is shut by a cork, and a tube immersed in the liquid, passes through it. The whole being now put under a receiver, as soon as the air in the receiver becomes sufficiently rarefied, the water issues from the upper extremity of the tube like a fountain-an effect which is produced by the pressure or elastic force of the air contained within the bottle. Another experiment is represented in fig. 100, which shows the pressure of the atmosphere on the human hand. This consists of a glass cylinder bottle-shaped at one extremity, and open at both ends. The larger end, ground and well greased, being put on the platen, and the palm of the hand placed on the upper end, a vacuum is made in the cylinder. The atmospheric pressure being no longer balanced in reference to the upper and lower surfaces of the hand, the upper surface is powerfully pressed on the top of the cylinder, and it can scarcely be withdrawn from its position except by a very strong effort. Besides the elasticity of the fluids in the organ being no longer counterbalanced by the weight of the atmosphere, the palm of the hand becomes swelled, and the blood has a tendency to issue from the pores of the skin. Fig. 101. Fig. 102. க |