formed of them constitutes the main point of difference between an expert and an inexpert chemical analyst. For the present we will have done with manganese and zinc, my especial object being to fix on the reader's memory. the nature of the changes effected on solutions of these metals by hydrosulphuric acid, and hydrosulphate of ammonia. The reader must not infer that the re-agents mentioned are the only ones for zinc and manganese; there exist several of equal delicacy, but the fact especially to be remembered is this:-Hydrosulphuric acid, and hydrosulphate of ammonia, are tests for all those substances which a beginner would consider to be metals. combined with the metal, are not points for discussion at present. One object was to get a solution of manganese, and we have got it: let us now study the properties of this solution. Our proposition is to precipitate or throw down the dissolved manganese. How can this be effected? The student succeeded in throwing down zine by means of hydrosulphuric acid, either in the form of aqueous solution or gas. Will these agents throw down manganese? On trying the experiment, the reader will find that the manganese cannot be precipitated by this means. The solution will either remain absolutely clear, or will only become slightly turbid; the manganese remaining dissolved. But if instead of hydrosulphuric acid gas, or solution of this gas in water, a solution of the same in ammonia (hartshorn) be employed; or, what amounts to the meaning of this expression? Why, the meaning is this: Lime, "Which a beginner would consider metals,”—what is the same thing, if a little hartshorn be added to the manganese clay, and other earths, the beginner would not suspect to be solution simultaneously with the hydrosulphuric acid, then all metallic compounds;-they are nevertheless; they are each the manganese will be thrown down or precipitated. If the an oxide, or rust of a corresponding metal; and the metals manganese solution be pure, the precipitate will be white, or which form earths are said to be terrigenous or earth-making rather flesh-coloured (we will call it white by courtesy); if the metals. solution contain iron or some other metal-a very probable idea of a metal with the alkalis, potash, and soda: nevertheAgain, the reader does not usually associate the contingency-then the white or cream-colour will be pro-less, these also are oxides or rusts of corresponding metals portionately disturbed. which are said to be kaligenous or alkali-making metals. Well, then, let the student remember the following facts :1. Neither the earth-making nor the alkali-making metals are precipitated from their solution by either hydrosulphuric acid or hydrosulphate of ammonia. What I desire especially to impress upon the student's consideration is this. Zinc is precipitated from its solution white by hydrosulphuric acid alone, whereas manganese is precipitated white (by courtesy) only when the hydrosulphuric acid is combined with ammonia or hydrosulphate of ammonia. Hence we at once deduce a valuable power in analysis. Supposing zinc and ammonia to exist together in one solution, they may readily be separated by applying the principles already deduced. Passing a current of hydrosulphuric acid gas through the compound solution, without the presence of ammonia, all the zinc will be thrown down; repeating the operation with the presence of ammonia, or still better, hydrosulphate of ammonia already prepared, the manganese will fall. Both these precipitates will be sulphurets; one of zinc, the other of manganese, The reader will now observe that although we just now dismissed the metal zinc, this was only for a time. Its consideration is now reopened in connexion and by contrast with manganese: chemical philosophy, in point of fact, is a structure made up of this comparative knowledge of different bodies. In addition to the fact that zinc is precipitated by hydrosulphuric acid alone, and manganese by hydrosulphuric acid in combination with ammonia, let the reader remember that a white precipitate by either of these agents is altogether exceptional. The usual colour of precipitates by hydrosulphuric acid and hydrosulphate of ammonia is black. metals are alone precipitated white: these are zinc and manganese. The student will now recognise a means by which. zinc and manganese, if existing together in one solution, admit of being separated; he will perhaps remark, however, that we do not separate the metals-obtaining zinc bodily, and manganese bodily-but obtain either a metal or a sulphuret. He will perhaps desire, like most beginners, to obtain this bodily presence of the metals. To this extent I cannot gratify him in the present lesson. Suffice it to say, that the process of removing sulphuric acid may be accomplished is accomplished in the reduction of metals from their ores-but would be difficult to accomplish in our present case; it is never accomplished in the course of analysis. Chemists arrive at some of their most correct results by collateral reasoning and calculation thus, knowing that the white sulphuret of man Two ganese is made up of- -parts sulphur, and- -pts manganese-that the white sulphuret of zinc is made up ofparts zinc, and- -parts sulphur-of course it is easy to calculate the amount of metal and of sulphur present, without actually separating the sulphur and obtaining the metal bodily. number, and termed by chemists calcigenous metals, are 5. But solutions of zinc and manganese yield a precipitate which is white. 6. And solutions of arsenic, cadmium, antimony, and persalt of tin, yield a precipitate which is yellow. mental chemical facts; the reader should master them The preceding are amongst the most important of fundathoroughly, not resting content with being able to think them out, but the facts should become part and parcel of the brain itself, so that the student, if roused from his slumbers at night, and asked any questions involved by the six generalisations which have been given, should be instantaneously able to supply the required answers. γιγαντε οδοντε οδοντ-ον G.D. It is a very common error for chemical beginners to imagine D. N.A.V. piv-ε that a certain result will always follow the addition of a certain substance to a solution of the same body. Thus, for example, a beginner might imagine that zinc, in whatever state of solution, will always be thrown down by hydrosulphuric acid, and that manganese, in whatever solution, will always be thrown down by hydrosulphate of ammonia. This is not so. The conditions necessary to ensure these, or any other chemical results, lie in a comparatively narrow space; they can only be learned by practice, and the appreciation δελφίνε ρίνοιν To this class belong the adjectives in 1, ας, αινα, αν, 28 μελας, μελαινα, μελαν, black, g. μελανος, μελαίνης, μέλανος, and ταλας, ταλαίνα, ταλαν, unhappy; 2, πας, πασα, παν, αλλ, every, g. пavтoç, maone, Ravтos, and its compound àras, 3, έκων, έκουσα, έκον, willing ; g. έκοντος, άnaoa, àray' ikovons, Kovтog, and aкwv, akovoα, akov, unwilling (à privative makes ikov into axov) 4, the adjectives in iç, tooα, ev, c. fi remains at the end of the word and before consonants, but disappears in the middle between vowels. Nouns in ug have, in the accusative singular a, and in the accusative plural aς; take in the genitive singular what is called the Attic form in ως, instead of oς; and in the dative singular as well as in the nominative plural, admit contraction ; which, however, is commonly not found in the accusative plural. If a vowel precedes eug, the whole singular and plural is contracted, as in χοευς. Nouns in aὓς and οὓς take the contraction only in the accusative plural. The words about to be declined are o βασιλευς, a king ; ὁ χοεύς, a measure of liquid (about a gallon) ; ὁ, ἡ βοῦς, a bull or core, an ox (Latin bos, bovis); and ἡ γραῖς an old woman. Ρ. Δ. Ν.Α.. G.D. βου γραν G. D. G. βασιλεων γράτες γραφων γραύσι βασιλείας χο(εα)ᾶς (3ο ας)βους (γράτας) γραΰς γρᾶτες D. λειφθείσι λειφθείσαις λειφθεισι D.Ν.Α.Κ. βασιλεύε G.D. βασιλεύοιν | χο-οιν λειφθεντα Δ. Ν.Δ.Υ. λειφθεντε VOCABULARY. λειφθενταιν G.D. λειφθέντοιν λειφθεῖσαιν We have ivory. Ivory is produced (γιγνομαι) in districts of Africa. The rays of the sun delight the shepherds. The brothers and the sisters are delighted by the rays of the sun. The sister is lovely. We admire fine ivory. Many elephants are in Africa. The business of the teeth is to masticate the food. It is the duty of every man to worship the divinity To the gods there once was (in idiomatic English, the gods once carried on) a war against (προς) the giants. The flocks follow the shepherd. The king has care of (for) the citizen. Ears are tired by the idle talk of the old woman. An old woman is talkative. The shepherd leads the herd of oxen to the city. Oxen are sacrifced to the gods by (υπο with g.) the priests. Ο priests, sacrifice an or to the gods. Children love their (the) parents. Parents are loved by their children. It is the business of a good shepherd to I pass on to the second great division of nouns, and proceed take (have) care of his herds. to speak of B. NOUNS WHICH IN THE GENITIVE HAVE A VOWEL BEFORE THE TERMINATION ος, And here, first, I must take up substantives which end in ευς, αὖς, and οὓς. The stem of these ends in v. The * The verb or with a genitive, as here, signifies it is the duty of, it is becoming in. Ir the second place I must ask your attention to nouns ending in ης, ες ; ως (g. wos) and ως and @ ( g. oor) in aς (g. αος), oc (g. toc). The stem of these words ends in o; the o remains at the end and before a consonant, but disappears in the σ * That is, χοεως is contracted into χοῶς, xosa into γρά, χρεων into χοῶν, and χοεας into χοᾶς. ! middle between two vowels. In the dative plural one a dis- ης, ες. Of these words, let us consider, first, those which end in The terminations ng (m. and f.), ec (n.), belong only to adjectives, and to proper names terminating in adjective forms in νης, λης, γενης, κρατης, μηδης, πειθης, σθενης, and (Kλens) Kλñs The neuter presents the pure stem. The words of this class suffer contraction in all the cases, except the nominative and vocative singular, and the dative plural, after dropping the o. The words ending in λens being contracted into kλñç, again undergo contraction in the dative singular. Learn both the 'contracted and the uncontracted forms I am about to give of ò, ý, σapns, clear, to σapes and rρinens, a Trireme, or galley with three banks of rowers Plural. (σαφε ες)σαφείς (σαφεα)σαφῆ LESSONS IN ITALIAN GRAMMAR.-No. III. (σαφε-ες) σαφεῖς (σαφε-α)σαφῆ of the University of Pavia, Professor of the Italian and German Languages at the Kensington Proprietary Grammar School. σαφές (σαφε-ων)σαφῶν ht D. (σαφε-ΐ) σαφεῖ σαφεσι Α. (σαφε-α) σαφῆ σαφές (σαφε-ας)σαφεῖς (σαφε-α)σαφῆ Γ. σαφές σαφές Dual. Ν.Α.V. σαφε-ε σαφη G.D. σαφεοιν σαφοῖν (Continued from page 21.) In adjectives in nc, &c, when these terminations are pre eded by a vowel, ea is commonly contracted into a, as ÌÌɛρeкλεā, and not into n, as in oapea oaon; for example, arλens, unrenowned, makes arλɛɛa into arλeã, in the masculine and feminine accusative singular, and in the neuter nominative, accusative and vocative; so υγιης forms ὑγιᾶ, Proper names of this termination, as well as Aons, Mars, in the accusative singular, follow the first as well as the third declension, and are therefore denominated Heteroclite (that is, of different declensions); accordingly, we have both Zweparn and Σωκράτην. But in those ending in κλης, the accusative in ny is not Attic, and therefore not allowable. tzóop-pah ahl-táh-rai ahl-tê-ro ahl-lô-ro ahl-too-rah áht-to He has a bad smell I repair Empire Wretched Unpunished Joseph, Joe The occiput, goblet Consumption With thee Type (a model) Mouse Tube To mount Severe Atlo Getto jêt-to Fitto fit-to Cotto kôt-to Σωτηρία, ας, ή, salvation. Tutto Vain True Wine Voto Tó-to Vow Had Bavaro báh-vah-ro Bavarian Severo sai-vê-ro Divino dee-vée-no Divine Αισχρος, α, ον, shameful. Lavoro lah-vô-ro Opidia,, intercourse (dat.) Ελεαίρω, I pity. He gives you Αἱ Σοφοκλεους τραγῳδιαι καλαι εισιν. Τον Σωκράτη επι τη σοφια θαυμαζομεν. Σωκράτει πολλοι μαθηται εισιν. Η Ινδική παρα τε τους ποταμούς και τους έλω εις τόπους φερει καλαμους πολλους. Λεγε αει τα αληθη, ω παῖ. Αναξαγόρας, ὁ σοφιστής, διδασκαλος ην Περικλέους. Ο Ηρακλεις, τοις ατυχεσι σωτηριαν | in each syllable like English g in g t When the gg's are followed by a, o, or u, they are pronounced He heard you Labour Debt, duty Acute, ingenious Water hemlock Yielded Apogee kah-pah-tchee-táh-to Capacitated ah-bee-too-áh-to Thucidydes Fungus growing on Ignorant Stealing of cattle There are six semi-vowels in the Italian language, so called because in their utterance a vowel must be placed before the consonant. They are not pronounced in one syllable only, as lables, which syllables are substantially the same though in an in the case of the mutes, but require the utterance of two syl inverse order. The semi- vowels are: 1. Ff, named in the alphabet effe (pronounced éf-fai). 2. L1, named in the alphabet elle (pronounced êl-lai). It has two sounds-one like the English consonant 1; the second is a peculiar sound, of which I shall have occasion to speak in the pronouncing tables. 3. M m, named in the alphabet emme (pronounced ém-mai), To insure perfect accuracy in the pronunciation, I may remark that when m is preceded by a vowel with which it forms one syllable, and a consonant being the next, it must be very softly sounded, and the voice must glide quickly to the next consonant, almost as if it formed part of the same syllable; for example, ambizione, ahm-bee-tzee-6-nai, ambition; empio, ém-peeo, impious; ombra, 6m-brah, a shadow. 4. Nn, named in the alphabet enne (pronounced en-nai), Generally speaking, this letter is pronounced just as in English; but the observation made on the m is equally applicable to ", In similar circumstances, the voice must glide quickly from the to the succeeding consonant; for example, andare, ahn-dáhrai, to go; entrare, en-tráh-rai, to enter; onda, ón-dah, a wave. After g, n has a peculiar sound, which I shall have occasion to explain in the pronouncing tables. Often is pro nounced like m before words commencing with the consonants b, m, and p; as, gran bestia, pronounced grahm be steeah, a boorish, insolent fellow, great blockhead, &c.; scolpire in marmo, pronounced skol-pée-rai im mahrr-mo, to chisel in marble; con poca fatica, pronounced kom pô-kah fah-tée-kah, with little effort. This is certainly the finest pronunciation, because it is the genius of the Italian language, as in the classical tongues, particularly Greek, to soften the transition from one word to another, and often from one syllable to the other, bychanges of consonants. 5. Rr, named in the alphabet erre (pronounced ér-ra), R when it is followed by a consonant, must be vibrated with a stronger emphasis than in English; and it is on the other hand very soft before a vowel; as, carta, pronounced kahrr-ta, paper, and soft in cara, pronounced káh-rah, dear. (To be continued.) LESSONS IN FRENC H.-No. LXXX. By Professor LOUIS FASQUELLE, LL.D. $135.-REMARKS ON THE FOREGOING RULES. (1.) Although the compound tenses of the reflective or pro nominal verbs [§ 43, (6.), § 46, (2.), § 56] take être as an auxiliary, the past participle of those verbs does not follow the rule (2.) of the preceding section; but comes under the same rules with those conjugated with avoir. It agrees with the direct regimen, when that regimen comes before it, and is invariable when that regimen succeeds :- Votre sœur s'est acheté de belles robes. Cette femme s'est rendue malheureuse. Your sister has bought (herse!) handsome dresses, i. e, for herself. That woman has rendered hersel unhappy. been the indirect regimen or dative, while the dire Acheté in first example does not vary, because se, placed representing femme, is a direct regimen, and precedes the regimen or accusative, robes, is placed after the participle, Rendue in the second example varies, because the words, participle. We will add a few extracts as examples :— Used as indirect Objects. Used as direct Objects. Elles se sont proposées commedes In this and a few other cases, I am compelled, for the sake of completeness of system, to make a slight departure from strict orthography. This word being properly written Mazzara, as well exemple, que la constitution la modèles de douceur. as the following words gazzera, azzimo, bazzotto, azzuffa. + There is very little difference between the pronunciation of the single z and zz. The zz, as well as %, may have the sound of tz in the word switzer, or dz in the word adze. According to modern orthography, the z is generally doubled between two single vowels in the middle of a word, but not after a consonant and not before diphthongs the first vowel of which is i; as, for examples, ia, ie, so, where it must remain single, and has the hard sound. plus simple des anciens. VOLTAIRE. QUOTED BY BESCHER They have proposed themselves as constitution of the ancients. as an example, only the most simple patterns of gentleness. They have proposed to themselves, * The er like the sound of the syllable er in the English word error. I saw them repel (repelling) the Je les ai vus prendre la fuite. Je les ai vus frapper. I saw them striking. Les personnes que j'ai entendues chanter. The persons whom I heardsing I saw them relieved by their enemies. Invariable. Je les ai vu repousser par les ennemis. I saw them repelled by the enemies. Le peu d'affection que vous lui avez temoigné, l'a découragé. The want of affection which you have shown him, has discouraged him. § 136-THE ADVERB.-RULES.-PLACE OF THE ADVERB. (1.) In French the adverb used to modify a verb in a simple tense is generally placed after the verb : Que de gens prennent hardiment | How many people assume boldly le masque de la vertu ! the mask of virtue! (2.) Adverbs of place, and those used in interrogations, have the same place in French as in English :- Où est votre frère ? Il est ici. Where is your brother? He is here. (3.) In compound tenses the adverb is placed between the auxiliary and the participle: Vous avez mas fait. You have done wrong. Noël and Chapsal, page 165. Several grammarians call en at times a régimen direct. We think with Bescherelle (Dictionnaire national, paya 1114), that en does not represent the entire direct regimen, but only a part of it, or rather merely refers to it; the direct regimen being itself underJ'en ai. Have you books? I hass stood. Ex. Avez-vous des livres ? In the latter sentence, the words quelques uns, the direct object, is understood after the verb; J'en ai quelques uns, and en is rather a reference to it, than a substitute for it. The literal translation of the sentence will show this: I have of them a few. some. |