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He accused the soldiers of being cowards.

3. A present combined with a past participle; as,
He accused the soldiers of having been cowards.

4. A clause of a sentence or a phrase; as,

bution, in denotes presence in a place, and so requires its object to be one, one individually, or one collectively; e. g.,

He accused the troops of having acted in a cowardly manner.
In the following example, many words, combining to form a sub-
stantive clause, stand as the object to the preposition above;
within the clause is a minor clause dependent on the preposi-
tion of :-

"A quick wit and a nice judgment could not raise this man above
being received only upon the foot of contributing to mirth and diversion."
Steele.

This, however, is a form of a sentence which cannot be recom-
mended for imitation.

Prepositions in general stand before the nouns they govern, but
by poetic license they may be placed after; e. g.,

"Wild Carron's lonely woods among."-Langhorne,

In verbs used with separable prepositions, the preposition, when separated, may stand after its object, and even at the end of the

sentence:

"This you pride yourself upon and this you are ruined by." In some phrases the preposition follows the noun; e. g., "Civil and religious liberty all the world over."

An affectation of elegance, which was devoid of a knowledge of the Teutonic idiom of our language, led Dr. Blair, and has led a host of blind imitators, to proscribe what that superficial critic with little accuracy called "splitting of particles," which he declares "is always to be avoided ; ' he gives as an instance this

sentence:

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"Though virtue borrows no assistance from, yet it may often be accompanied by, the advantages of fortune."

Yet it is certain that sentences so formed are sanctioned by the highest authority; e. g.,

"To suppose the zodiac and planets to be efficient of and antecedent to themselves.”—Bentley.

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If one side of a triangle be produced, the exterior angle is greater than either of the interior opposite angles.

In fig. 16, let A B C be a triangle, and let its side BC be produced to D. The exterior angle A C D is greater than either of the interior opposite angles C B A and B AC.

Bisect (I. 10) AC in E, join BE and
produce it to F. Make EF equal (I. 3) to
B E.
Join F C.

Fig. 16.

A

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Because A E is equal (Const.) to x C, and BE (Const.) to EF; therefore in the triungles AEB and CEF, the two sides A E and E B of the one, are equal to the two sides CE and E F of the other, each to each. But the angle A E B is equal (I. 15) to the angle CEF, because they are vertical angles. Therefore the base AB is equal (I. 4) to the base cr, the triangle AEB to the triangle CEF, and the remaining angles of the one to the remaining angles of the other, each to each, viz., those to which the equal sides are opposite. Wherefore the angle B A B is equal to the angle EC F. But the the angle ACD is greater than the angle BAE. In the same manner, if the side BC be bisected, and AC be produced to G, it may be demonstrated that the angle BCG is greater than the angle Therefore the angle A CD is greater than the angle A B C. But the angle ACD is equal (I. 15) to the angle BCG. Therefore, if one side, &c. Q. E. D.

The sense may require two prepositions used in combination; angle ECD is greater (Ax. 9) than the angle ECF. Therefore

e. g,

"And from before the lustre of her face
White break the clouds away."-Thompson.

Ellipses of prepositions have given rise to idiomatic phrases;

e. g.,

We rode (over) sixty miles (on) that day.
This looks very like (to) a paradox.

A B C.

Scholium.-The student should, for the sake of practice, write out the demonstration of the second part here alluded to; other

Like, near, next, and other adjectives and adverbs, are used with wise, the truth of the proposition will not be so completely fixed an object immediately dependent on them :

"And earthly power doth then show likest God's
When mercy seasons justice."-Shakspeare.

Care must be taken not to confound prepositions with adverbs,
especially with regard to the words which are used both ways.
Before is an instance; e. g.,

Adverb: She entered before.
Preposition: She entered before me.

You may ascertain whether in any particular case before (and
similar words) is an adverb or preposition by considering what it
goes with, a verb or a noun; e. g.,

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ARB is equal to the angle A DE, that is, the exterior angle equal to the interior and opposite angle; but by Prop. XVI. the exterior angle is greater than the interior and opposite angle; therefore, the angle A E B is both equal to, and greater than, the angle A DE, which is impossible. Wherefore the straight line AE is not perpendicular to BC; and in the same way it may be shown that no other straight line but A B can be perpendicular to B c. Therefore, from a point without a straight line, &c. Q. E. D.*

Corollary 1.-If from any point without a given straight line two straight lines be drawn, one perpendicular to it, and the other not, the perpendicular will be on that side of the straight line which is not perpendicular, where it makes the acute angle with the given straight line.

Corollary 2.-The two equal angles of an isosceles triangle are both acute angles.

Corollary 3.-Only two equal straight lines can be drawn to another straight line from a given point without it.

greater than three right angles; thus the following exercise is partially anticipated.

EXERCISE 11. TO PROPOSITION XVII,

two right angles; and the three exterior angles of every triangle The two exterior angles of every triangle are together greater than are together greater than the three right angles.

In fig. 17, let A B C be any triangle; any two exterior angles of the three exterior angles are together greater than three right this triangle are together greater than two right angles; and all angles.

angle, is equal to two right angles, therefore, any two exterior For every exterior angle, together with its adjacent interior four right angles; but, any two interior angles are together less angles, together with their adjacent interior angles, are equal to than two right angles, by Prop. XVII.; therefore their two exterior angles are together greater than two right angles. Again, the three exterior angles, together with their adjacent interior angles, are together equal to six right angles; but in the preceding

Corollary 4.-A circle cannot cut a straight line in more points exercise it was shown that the three interior angles of any triangle than two.

PROPOSITION XVII.-THEOREM,

are less than three right angles; therefore, the three exterior angles are greater than three right angles.

Scholium.-This demonstration depends on the axiom, that if

Any two angles of a triangle are together less than two right two unequal quantities are together equal to a given quantity, and angles.

In fig. 17, let A B C be any triangle; any two of its angles are together less than two right angles.

Το

B

Fig. 17.
A

D

Produce B C to D. Because ACD is the exterior angle of the triangle ABC, the angle A C D is greater (I. 16) than the interior and opposite angle ABC. each of these unequals, add the angle ACB. Therefore the two angles ACD and ACB, are greater (Ax. 4) than the two angles ABC and AC B. But the two angles ACD and ACB are together equal (I. 3) to two right angles. Therefore the two angles ABC and BCA are together less than two right angles. In like manner, it may be demonstrated, that the two angles BA C and ACB, as also the two angles c A B and ABC, are together less than two right angles. Therefore, any two angles, &c. Q. E. D.

EXERCISE I. TO PROPOSITION XVII.

The three interior angles of any triangle are together less than three right angles.

In fig. 17, let A B C be any triangle, its three interior angles ABC, BCA, and C A B are together less than three right angles.

For, by Prop. XVII., the two angles ABC and BCA are together less than two right angles; the two angles BCA and CAB are together less than two right angles; and the two angles CAB and A B C are together less than two right angles; therefore, in all, the three angles A B C, RCA, and C A B taken twice are less than six right angles; wherefore, the three-angles ABC, BCA, and CAB taken once are less than three right angles. Therefore, the three interior angles, &c. Q. E. D.†

Scholium --Here there is evidently a new axiom implied in the demonstration, namely, that the halves of unequals are unequal, and that th equal y remains, after halvi: g, on the same side as it did before halving. Another mode of demonstration proposed by T. B cock, Great Warley, is this: That as every exterior angle with its corresponding interior is equal to two right angles, so all the three exterior angles with their corresponding interior angles are together equal to six right angles; but by Prop. XVII. every exterior angle is greater than its opposite interior angle, therefore all the exterior angles together are greater than all their corresponding interior angles together. But all the interior angles together with their corresponding interior angles are equal to six right angles, therefore all the interior angles are together less than three right angles, and consequently all the exterior angles are

This exercise was solved by NON SUTOR, Colchester; J. H. EASTWOOD, Middleton; T. Bocock, Great Warley; E. L. JONES, Pembroke; C. L. HADFIELD and J. GOODFELLOW, Bolton-le-Moors; QUINTIN PRINGLE, Glasgow; D. H., Driffield; E. Russ, Fentonville; E. J. BREMNER, Carlisle; and others.

+ This exercise was solved by J. II. EASTWOOD, Middleton; QUINTIN PRINGLE, Glasgow; E. J. BREMNER, Carlisle; E. Russ, Pentonville; RB. N. Ross, Camberwell; T. Bocock, Great Warley; and others.

if one of the unequal quantities be less than half of the given quantity, the other of the unequal quantities must be greater than half of the given quantity.

PROPOSITION XVIII.-THEOREM.

The greater side of every triangle is opposite to the greater angle.

In fig. 18, let ABC be a triangle, of which the side AC is greater than the side AB; the angle ABC is greater than the angle BCA.

From AC the greater, cut off by Prop. III. the part AD equal to the less AB; bisect the angle BAD, by Prop. IX., by the straight line A E, meeting B C in E; and join E D.

B

Fig. 18.

E

Because, in the two triangles A BE and A DE, the side A D is equal to the side A B, by construction, and the side therefore the two sides A B and A E in the triangle A B B, are equal AE is common to both triangles, BA E is equal to the angle D A E, by construction; therefore, by to the two sides A D and AE in the triangle A DE; and the angle Prop. IV., the base BE is equal to the base D E, and the angle ABE to the angle A DE. But, by Prop. XVI., the exterior angle ADE of the triangle DEC is greater than the interior DCE; wherefore, also, the angle ABE is greater than the angle DCE; therefore, in the triangle ABC, the angle ABC is greater than the angle BCA. Wherefore, the greater side of every triangle, &c. Q. E. D.*

Scholium.-This demonstration is different from Euclid's, and preferable to it, on account of its being more direct, and not requiring the à fortiori argument.

less than another, according as the angle opposite to the former Corollary.—One side of a triangle is greater than, equal to, or is grea er than, equal to, or less than the angle opposite to the

latter.

attached to the 19th proposition; and the corollary there attached
In Cassell's Euclid this corollary is misplaced, as it is there
to the 18th should be appended to the 19th.
was pointed out by Mr. G. Williams, Bristol.
This misplacement

"Of curious arts, art thou more fond? then mark
The mathematic glories of the skies,
In number, weight, and measure, all ordain'd.
Wi-dom and choice their well-known characters
Here deep impress, and claim it for their own.
Use rivals beauty, art contends with pow'r;
No wanton waste amid effuse expense,
The great Economist adjusting all
To prudent pomp, magnificently wise."

This exercise was solved by T. Bocock, Great Warley; QUINTIN PRINGLE, Glasgow; J. H. EASTWOOD, Middleton; R. B. N. Ross, Cam berwell; and others.

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LESSONS IN FRENCH.-No. LXXX I.

By Professor LOUIS FASQUELLE, LL.D.
138.-ADVERBS OF NEGATION,

51

(C.) Remark.-Ne is not used when the verb of the preceding preposition is accompanied by a negative :

Il ne parle pas autrement qu'il agit.

Il n'est pas plus modeste qu'il le parait.

He does not speak otherwise than he acts.

He is not more modest than he ap pears.

(7.) After craindre, appréhender, avoir peur, trembler, we put

(1.) The negation is composed of ne placed before the verb, and pas or point, after it in the simple tenses. The second negative comes between the auxiliary and the verb, in the com-pus after the ne when we wish for the accomplishment of the pound tenses:

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action expressed by the second verb :

Je crains, qu'il ne vienne pas.
J'ai peur, que mon frère n'arrive

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I fear, that he may not come.
I am afraid, that my brother may

not come.

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Kings are by no means protected into three classes :by laws.

It will be seen in the above examples, that the negative
point is stronger than pas. The meaning of these two words,
which are in fact substantives used adverbially to strengthen
the negative ne, will sufficiently explain this:
N'allez pas means n'alles un pas, do not go or move one pace
or step. N'ailez point means n'allez un point, do not go, or
move a point or dot.

(2.) The second negative may be suppressed after the verbs
pouvoir, oser, savoir, and cesser: —

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1st. Prepositions governing nouns without the aid of another preposition. They are:*

A, at or to
Des, from, as soon as
De, of, from
Après, after
Attendu, on account of
Avant, before
Avec, with

Chez, with, at the house of
Concernant, touching
Contre, against
Dans, in
Depuis, since
Derrière, behind
Dessus, above
Dessous, under
Devers, towards
Devant, before
Durant, during
En, in

Entre, between
Envers, towards
Excepté, except

2nd. Prepositions
them :-
Auprès, near
Autour, around
Ensuite, after
Faute, for want
Hors, out of
Loin, far

A wicked man never knows how Près, near

DE SEGUR.

gait jamais

Noël.

to forgive.

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Proche, near

A cause, on account
A côté, by the side

A couvert, under cover

A fleur, even with
A force, by dint

A la faveur, by means

A l'abri, under shelter

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requiring the preposition de after

A la mode, according to the fashion

For fear, or lest you might be de- A la réserve, reserving

ceived.

(5.) Ne is used in the same manner after autre, different; autrement, otherwise; plus, moins, mieux, forming a compari

A l'exception, excepting
A l'exclusion, excluding

A l'égard, with regard

A l'insu, unknown

son, and after the verùs craindre, avoir peur, trembler, appré-A P'opposite, contrary hender, empêcher :-

Il est tout autre qu'il n'était.

Il parle autrement qu'il n'agit. Il est plus modeste qu'il ne le parait.

Je crains presque, je craius, qu'un songe ne m'abuse.

RACINE. Vous avez bien peur que je ne change d'avis. NARIVAUX.

La pluie empêcha qu'on ne so promenât dans les jardins.

RACINE.

He is very different from what he was.

He speaks and acts very differently. He is more modest than he appeirs.

I am almost afraid that (lest) a dream is deceiving me.

You fear much, lest I may change

my mind.

The rain prevented their taking a walk in the gardens.

A moins, unless, for less

3rd. The prepositions

Attenant, joining
Jusque, as far as

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followed by a are:

Par rapport, with regard
Quant, as to

(2.) Many of the prepositions which govern the régime direct are formed from active verbs. Almost all the preposi

tions requiring de before the regimen are formed of a preposition and a noun. Those requiring the preposition d have a relation of tendency, of aim, &c.

⚫ Governing the accusative. + Governing the genitive or ablative,

§ 140.-REMARK.

LESSONS IN ITALIAN GRAMMAR.-No. IV.

By CHARLES TAUSENAU, M.D.,

Languages at the Kensington Proprietary Grammar School. (Continuea from p. 42.)

The rules which we have given [§ 92, (1.) (2.) note, and § 133] with regard to the regimen or government of verbs and adjectives, apply also to prepositions. When two prepositions of the University of Pavia, and Professor of the German and Italian require the same regimen, it is useless to repeat this regimen after each one, but if they require a different regimen, it is necessary to give to each its proper object. It would, therefore, be incorrect to say,-Un magistrat doit toujours juger suivant et conformément aux lois :-A magistrate should always judge in accordance with, and conformably to, the laws; because the preposition suivant governs the noun in the régime direct, that is without the aid of another preposition, and conformément governs the noun in the régime indirect by means of a. We should say:

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6. S, nåmed in the alphabet esse (pronounced ês-sai). This consonant has considerable variations, and is one of the most difficult to pronounce throughout correctly, for even in Italy there are variations. An irreproachable pronunciation of this consonant can only be acquired by closely marking its utterance in all its shades by Italians who speak purely. Speaking generally, there are two leading sounds. One is a sharp, hissing sound, as in the English words, sing, siere; the other is a much milder sound, as in the English words, cheese, ficas, ease, please, &c. The following general rules will be sufficient for the present: Ishall state the exceptions more fully hereafter.

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First, the sharp sound of this consonant may be said to be the ruling sound, because it is heard in the greater number of syllables and words. I shall invariably mark it by the single letters; and wherever this is used, the reader will remember that it represents the sharp, hissing sound of the letter, thus avoiding multiplicity of signs, which would be caused by using It has always the sharp, hissing sound in the beginning of a word before a vowel; as, for example, sale, pronounced sahlai, salt; sole, só-lai, the sun; sempre, som-prai, always; subito, before the consonants e, f, p, g, and t; as, for example, in sóo-bee-to, suddenly. It has also the sharp, hissing sound saitro, skáhl-tro, shrewd; sforzo, stor-tzo, compulsion; crespo, krái-spo, crisp; pasqua, páh-skwah, Easter; pasto, páh-sto, a meal. It has also the sharp and hissing sound after the consonants 1, n, and r, and may say a pre-eminently hard and hissing sound in this case; as, for example, falso, fahl-so, false; corso, kórr-so, course; arso, áhrr-so, burnt; forse, for sai, perhaps; panse, peeahn'-sai, he wept; tinse, vin-sai, he vanquished. In Rome, the sharpness of the s after 1, n, andr, is generally so very audible, that it almost amounts to the utterance of a ts, as if the examples just given were written with the hard pronounced with the English sound in the word Switzer; which, however, with all respect for the eternal city and the "bocea Romana," I must pronounce to be a provincialism.

Secondly, the milder sound of the s occurs generally when it is placed between two vowels. As the nearest possible approach to it, I shall follow the practice of Mr. Walker in his English pronouncing dictionary, and mark it with a s; for example, arriso, ahv-rée-zo, opinion; quisa, gvée-za, guise, manner: tesoro, tai-zô-ro, treasure; usura, oo-zó-rah, usury; sposa, spô-za, bride; acensa, ahk-k6o-zah, accusation; missria, mee-zê-reeah, misery; misura, mee-zóo-rah, measure.

This rule is subject to several exceptions, the most important of which I must state here.

Many Italian adjectives end in oso and osa, and whenever before these terminations there is a vowel, the terminational s has the sharp, hissing sound; as, for example, glorioso, pronounced glo-recó-so, glorious; virtuoso, virr-too-so, virtuous; tortuoso, torr-tooó-so, tortuous.

There are many compound words in Italian having the particles dis and mis, and before consonants the finals of these particles must have the sharp, hissing sound; as, for example, disposizione, pronounced dis-po-zee-tseco'-nai, disposition; dis the two foregoing words, that the s of the particle dis has the misura, dis-mee-zoo-rah, excess; (the reader will note in hissing sound, while the next s, placed between two vowels, follows the general rule, and has the mild sound); dispiacenza, dis-peeah-tchen-tsah, displeasure; discreditare, dis-krai-deetah-rai, to discredit.

In the greatest part of compound words, where s begins the proseguire, pro-sai-gwće-rai, continue; risolvere, ree-sôl-vai-rai, syllable, it has the sharp, hissing sound; as, for example, to dissolve; presumire, prái-sóo-mai-rai, to presume: risorgert, ree sórr-jai-rai, to rise again; trasustanziato, trah-soo-stahntsccá-to, transubstantiated.

There are other exceptions which I shall take occasion to point out as examples occur.

Further, & has the mild sound when it immediately precedes

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The letter y is always replaced in Italian by i; as, for example, for physics (physical science), the Italians say fisica; for stygian, stigio.

SECOND PRONOUNCING TABLE,

the consonants b, d, g, l, m, n, r, v; as, for example, sbarra, | are just so written in Italian. They are nevertheless pro-
pronounced zbáhrr-rah, bar, barrier; sdire, zdée-rai, to retract; nounced as if they were written Santippe and Santo. (The
sguarda, zgwáhrr-do, look; slontanare, zlon-tah-náh-rai, to latter word has retained the x principally that it might not be
remove; smania, zmáh-neeah, madness; snervare, znerr-váh- confounded in writing with the word Santo, saint).
rai, to unnerve; sradicare, zrah-dee-káh-rai, to eradicate;
svelto, zvél-to, lively, clever, nimble, easy. I have stated that
the particles dis and mis before consonants have the sharp, his-
sing sound. There is no deviation from this rule, and these
particles retain the sharp, hissing sound even before the last-
mentioned consonants; for example, disbandire, pronounced
dis-bain-dée-rai, to banish; disdire, dis-dée-rai, to retract; dis- SHOWING THE COMBINATION OF VOWELS WITH SEMI-VOWELS
gombrare, dis-gom-bráh-rai, to empty; disleale, dis-laiáh-lai,
disloyal; dismettere, dis-mét-tai-rai, to dislocate an arm, to
dismiss (an affair); disnervare, dis-nerr-váh-rai, to unnerve;
disradicare, dis-rah-dee-káh-rai, to eradicate; disvenire, dis-vai- Fere
néc-rai, to swoon; misgradito, mis-grah-dée-to, disagreeable; Refe
misleale, mis-laiah-lai, disloyal; misvenire, mis-vai-née-rai, to Foce
Cefo
When ss is between two vowels, it does not follow the rule
of the single s, but must be sounded with a sharp, hissing Gufo
sound; as, for example, fosso, pronounced fôs-so, a ditch, a
canal; rosso, rós-so, red; posso, pós-so, I can.

swoon,

Italian.

IN NATURAL ORDER.

Pronounced.

fe-rai*
rai-fai
fô-tchai

English.
Beasts, fairs
Thread
Jaws

A monkey

tchê-fo

Fugo

fóo-go

I put to flight

goo-fo+

A horned owl

Lago

lah-go

Gola

gó-lah

Leso

laí-zo

só-lai

lée-tchai

Sole
Lice
Celi
Lode
Delo

I have not yet spoken of the letter H. It is named in the
alphabet accu (pronounced ah'k-kah). According to its alpha-
betical sound, and because its two syllables are substantially
semi-vowel;
one, only placed inversely, it might be classed as a
but as it is only an auxiliary letter to modify the sounds of c
and y, as I shall have occasion to explain fully hereafter, it is a
mere soundless, written sign, not a letter. It also serves to dis- Lume
tinguish the words ho, I have, from o, or; hai, thou hast, from Mule
ai, dative plural of the article; ha, ne has, from a, the preposition
to; and hanno, they have, from anno, the year. This distinction
is, however, only for the eye, for in pronouncing, the h is quite
mute; and some purists, headed by Metastasio, instead of an h,
put the grave accent in those first four words.

The Italian has no aspirates, which essentially distinguishes
it from the leading languages of Europe. Only in the middle,
and at the end of some few interjections, a kind of aspiration
is heard, which is only produced by the prolongation of the
sound of the vowel, or of the transition of the voice from one
vowel to another, principally, however, by a more emphatic
emotion by which such interjections are thrown out; as, for
example, ah! ahi! deh! ahimè! eh! oh! ehi! ohi! ohimè!
doh!

In the early period of the language, the Italians wrote all
words manifestly of Latin origin with an initial ; as, for
example, habile, now abile; hinno, now inno; hora, now ora;
historia, now istoria. This insignificance of the has given
rise to some proverbial expressions: as, "Questa cosa non vale
un' acca,"
"this is not worth an h;" or, as an Englishman
would say, "
not worth a fig or a farthing; or "Non m'im-
porta un'acca," "I don't care an h for it; or, as an Englishman
would say, "I don't care a straw for it;
un'

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tchê-lee

Lake

Throat

Hurt

Sun

It is permitted
The heavens

Praise

lô-dai

dê-lo

Delus

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née-tchai

Branches
Manner, mode
Tamed

Wall

I reconsider
Ship
Vein
Negress
Fregs

Berenice, a woman's

name

Thou suppest
Name

Less

Nape of the neck
Cradle

Thin, rare
He gilds

Surrenders (of
towns)
Mr., Master
I laugh

Thou gildest

Property, victuals,
merchandise, robe

A cheat
Rude
Durations

Sarah
Erased
With himself

* That my pupil readers may thoroughly exercise themselves in pronunciation, in order to give a complete illustration of the junction of vowels and semi-vowels, in natural order, I have selected words of two syllables, in which the first syllable of the first word is the same as the concluding syllable of the second.

The English letter w does not occur at all in Italian. The letter X, which represents properly speaking a compound sound (ks), is unknown in pure Italian words, and the Seco English sound is never heard. In words of foreign origin, which would have this sound in English, the Italians place an 8 or ss, or c; as for the word example (from the Latin exemplum), the Italians write esempio; for extreme (from Latin extremus), they write estremo; for Xenophon, Senofonte; for Xerxes, Serse; for Alexander, Alessandro. The letter e replaces the x in words which are the compounds of the prefix ex, when a follows it; for example, for excellent, they write eccellente; for excess, eccesso, &c. Custom has, however, sanctioned the use of the x in a few words of Greek origin, for Xantippe and Xanto (Xanthus, the river in Asia Minor)

The vowel u in Italian, as a final letter, is only to be found in monosyllables; as, tu, thou; fu, was; or in those words that have the grave accent on the last syllable; as, virtù, virtue; Corfu, Corfu. I am therefore compelled, by the use of the word gufo, and others to follow, to depart from the strict system.

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