Εικόνες σελίδας
PDF
Ηλεκτρ. έκδοση

which is shortened into

LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-No. LXXI.

By JOHN R. BEARD, D.D.
SYNTAX.-CONJUNCTIONS.

JOININGAs the office of conjunctions. The joining may take place between two words, between two clauses, and between two propositions. Properly the conjunction, and, joins two things,-this with that, and is in consequence required before every second noun, adjective, verb, &c. The practice of putting and before only the last word of a series is of modern date. As an example of the merely uniting functions of the conjunction, take this example :

1st Clause.

1

2

[blocks in formation]

These sentences are right or wrong according to the meaning you "Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between me and thee, and intend. If you mean that a loves b better than c loves b, the first is correct; in full, the sentence would then stand:

3

7

2nd Clause.

between my herdmen and thy herdmen, for we are brethren."(Gen. xiii. 8.)

The conjunction, and, number one, unites the pair of words, me, thee; number two unites the first clause with the second; the third and unites "my herdmen" with "thy herdmen."

You love him better than I love him;

but if you mean that a loves b better than a loves c, then the sen-
tence is incorrect, as may appear thus:-

You love him better than you love me.
Similar remarks might be made on the second example. John

As an instance of and uniting propositions, take the fol- Wesley, who was a good scholar, says:— lowing:

1. And Jesus arose out of the synagogue

2. And entered into Simon's house,

3. And Simon's wife's mother was taken with a fever

4. And they besought him for her,

5. And he stood over her

6. And rebuked the fever,

7. And it left her;

8. And immmediately she arose

9. And ministered unto them

Here are nine successive sentences introduced by and. While performing the part of joining together, a conjunction may also show the nature of the union which it effects, assigning, that is, the logical connexion as well as forming the grammatical connexion. The logical connexion may be of various kinds.

The conjunction for, as it appears in the above example, gives an instance of a causal conjunction, or a conjunction which assigns the ground or reason of what precedes. In the ensuing you have a specimen of a conditional conjunction in if, and of comparative conjunctions in as well and than:

"Ah! if she lends not alms as well as rules,

What can she more than tell us we are fools."--Pope. The connecting force of the conjunction that may not appear at first sight, as in

That mind is not matter, is certain.

Yet analyse the words, and you will find two sentences, of which that is the link, thus :

Mind is not matter,

This proposition is certain,

That mind is not matter, is certain.

Conjunctions unite words which bear to each other the same grammatical relation,

This rule is commonly stated thus: Conjunctions connect the like tenses of verbs and the like cases of nouns. The readiest syntactical guide in the use of conjunctions is the thought. I will take two instances, one of concord, the other of dependence :

Concord: You and I are ill. Dependence: He beat you and me,

In the first proposition, we have I after and, not so much because you is in the nominative case, as because the statement is that

am ill. This appears by analysis-

You are ill.

I am ill.

I

He hath died to redeem such a rebel as me;" and Lord Brougham, whose English is quite idiomatic, writes:"That England can spare from her service such men as him.” Are these high authorities correct? If me depends on redeem, Wesley is correct; if him depends on spare, Brougham is correct. But Wesley does not say he hath died to redeem me, but to redeem such as. And Brougham does not say England can spare him, but such as. Consequently, these eminent writers are wrong. They should have said, "such a rebel as I (am);" "such men as he (is)."

The conjunction, as, carries with it the force of a relative pronoun, that is to say, it introduces a second proposition to which it serves for the subject; e. g.,

"But as many as received him."--(John i. 12.) As is sometimes used in a manner which involves a grammatical doubt; for instance, should we write,

The conditions are as follow; (or)
The conditions are as follows.

The phrases are elliptical, and the preference of the one to the other depends on the way in which the ellipsis should be filled

up; as,

The conditions are as (they) follow.
The conditions are as (it) follows.

I am disposed in favour of the last, thinking that the verb in such
cases is used as an impersonal or unipersonal verb.
The employment of the conjunction, that, as in

They affirmed (that) he would not come, is required as indispensable by some grammatical critics with an emphasis which may be somewhat undue. That the sense does not require its insertion, is obvious from its nature and from the senof the sentence is separated from the first by several intervening tence just given as an example. If, however, the second membet words, that may serve as a point on which the mind may rest, until it takes up the clause to which it refers, and for which sort it is a substitute; e. g.,

[blocks in formation]

is found than is necessary.

In conversation it is common

hear a sentence introduced with but however, when only but of however is necessary; the uneducated are especially given to In the second proposition, me occurs after and, because me, as pleonastic forms of this kind. But we find them in good authors, well as you, is dependent on beat; e. g.,

He beat you;

Ile beat me;

as may be seen by the italicised words in these examples "When that the poor have cried Cæsar hath wept."-Shakspeare. "But and if that evil servant say."-(Matt. xxiv. 48.)

[merged small][ocr errors]

CORRESPONDING CONJUNCTIONS.

Certain conjunctions go in pairs; that is, the precedence of the one necessitates the use of the other; e. g.,

1. To though corresponds yet; as, "Though he die yet shall he live." (John xi. 25.)

The exclamation, O forĮ signifies O that I possessed! as, "O for that warning voice!"-Cowper.

but alas for! simply expresses grief towards; as,

"Alas for Sicily !"-Milton,
"Alas for the day !"-(Joel i. 15.)

2. To whether corresponds or; as, "Whether it be greater or Instead of O for, we sometimes use O that ; e. g., less."-Bishop Butler.

3. To either corresponds or; as, "The indulgence of a declamatoty manner is not favourable either to good composition or good delivery.”—Blair.

4. To neither corresponds nor; as, "John the Baptist came neither eating bread nor drinking wine."-(Luke vii. 33.)

5. To both corresponds and; as, "I am a debtor both to the Grecks and to the barbarians, both to the wise and unwise."— (Rom. i. 14.)

6. To such corresponds as; as, "An assembly such as earth never saw."-Cowper.

7. To such corresponds that; as, "The difference is such that all will perceive it."

8. To as corresponds as; as, "And he went out from his presence a leper as white as snow."-(2 Kings v. 27.)

9. To as corresponds so; as, twelve."

"As two are to four, so are six to

10. To so corresponds as; as, "How can you descend to a thing
so base as falsehood."
11. To so corresponds as; as, "No lamb was e'er so mild

as he."-Langhorne.

12. To so corresponds as; as, "We ought to read blank verse so as to make every line sensible to the ear."-Blair.

13. To so corresponds that; as, "No man was so poor that he

could not make restitution."-Milman.

[blocks in formation]

Instead of speaking of a person, you may speak to a person, or call upon a person; you may employ the style of direct address. For such kinds of address our nouns in English have no specific form; but exclamations or interjections supply the place of such forms, and mark the existence of a direct address or appeal. That address or appeal may have various meanings, and even various shades of meaning, corresponding with the state of the feelings at the moment; e. g.,

"Ah Dennis! Gildon ah! what ill-starr'd rage
Divides a friendship long confirm'd by age."-Pope.
"Alas! poor Yorick."-Shakspeare.

Sometimes interjections, for instance, O! oh! ah! lo! merely call attention, or indicate an appeal or an address; in such cases they are followed by the case of the subject or that of the object; as,

Subject: "O thou unknown, almighty Cause!"-Burns.
Object: "Lo! the lilies of the field,

How their leaves instruction yield !"—Heber.

When deep feeling is intended, the case of the object is used with a pronoun of the first person; as,

Ah me! O unhappy me! woe is me!

that is, ah! what will become of me! O what has befallen unhappy me! woe is to me! or, woe is on me!

"Judas said, Hail, master! and kissed him.”—(Matt. xxvi. 49.)
"Hail, Macbeth!"-Shakspeare.

That is, Hail be to thee, O master! Hail (health) be to Macbeth! In order to distinguish the subject and the object, when used with exclamations or interjections, from the subject and the object when employed in the third person singular, the former may be called the subject of direct address, and the latter the object of direct address.

The interjection, woe to requires the case of the object; the object, in reality, is governed by the preposition to :

"Woe to them that join house to house."-(Is. v. 8.)

"O that my people had hearkened unto me, my ways!"-(Ps. lxxxi. 13.)

and Israel had walked in

LESSONS IN ITALIAN GRAMMAR.-No. V.

By CHARLES TAUSENAU, M.D.,

Of the University of Pavia, and Professor of the German and Italian Languages at the Kensington Proprietary Grammar School.

(Continued from p. 54.) IV.

I have now to speak of the diphthongs; but before entering from the English, inasmuch as the two vowels forming a into details I may remark that these letters differ materially diphthong do not entirely merge into one sound, but are in Italian more or less distinctly heard, though only pronounced by one opening of the mouth, and with one emission of the air or voice, which gives them the value of one sound. This broad and general characteristic, however, prevails among all Italian diphthongs, that there must be a ruling sound, requiring a greater stress of the voice and more distinctness of utterance, which ruling sound is at one time on the first, at another on the second of the two vowels. In those diphthongs where the second of the two vowels is the ruling sound, the voice glides more rapidly from the first vowel to the second, and is, as it were, absorbed by it. The second is on that account heard with greater distinctness, and such diphthongs present more of the two vowels is the ruling sound, the second is somewhat a united sound, while in those diphthongs where the first of which approach to a united sound, though shortly and quickly more distinctly heard than the first vowel of those diphthongs, trailed along, as it were, by the first.

The second kind or class may be termed, on this account, the separated diphthongs; the first class the united diphthongs,though I must caution the reader not to understand these words in their strictly literal sense; because, as I have stated before, in all Italian diphthongs the two vowels are more or less distinctly heard.

United diphthongs are, for example,

ia, as in fiato (feeáh-to), breath; biada (beeáh-dah), corn; piano (peeáh-no), even, slow.

ie, as in lieto (lecê-to), cheerful; bieco (becê-ko), squinting; priego (precê-go), request, prayer.

io, as in fiore (feeó-rai), flower; piove (pecô-vai), it rains; brioso (bree-ó-so), lively; chioma (keeò-mah); head of

hair.

iu, as in piu (peeóo), more; fiume (fee6o-mai), a river; schiuma (skeeóo-mah), foam, scum.

ua, as in guasto (gwah-sto), destruction; quà (kwah), here, hither; quale (kwáh-lai), who.

uz, as in guerra (gwêrr-rah), war; Guelfo (gwêl-fo), a Guelph ; questo (kwai-sto), this.

ui, as in guisa (gwée-zah), guise, manner; Guido (gwéc-do), Guy; qui (kwee), here.

uo, as in cuore (kooô-rai), heart; suono (soob-no), sound; uomo (ooô-mo), man."

Separated diphthongs are, for example,

ae, as in acre (ahai-rai), air, gas; aerimante (ahai-ree-máhntai), one who predicts the air, or by aeromancy.

ai, as in laido (láhee-do), ugly; maisi (mahee-sée), yes indeed.

ao, as in Paolo (páho-lo), Paul.

au, as in aura (áhoo-rah), a soft breeze; lauro (láhoo-ro), laurel; fraude (fráhoo-dai), deceit; fauno (fáhoo-no), faun; causa (káhoo-zah), a cause (at law), affair.

eo, as in Eolo (eo-lo), Eolus.

eu, as in Europa (aioo-rô-pah), Europe; feudo (fêoo-do), a feud or feoff; Seleuco (sai-lêoo-ko), Seleucus.

THIRD PRONOUNCING TABLE, SHOWING WORDS WITH VOWELS IN COALITION.

1. Words the same with regard to their letters, but different with regard to their syllables:

Italian.
Balia

Balia

Balio

Bacio

The vowel before any other vowel, and the vowel u before o, as they occur in the united diphthongs, make in the pro- Balio nunciation of Italian precisely the same impression as a grave or diatonic note in music, slightly but distinctly touched, to glide over to the second ruling vowel. They are very easy Bacio transitions, and carry with them a particular charm, giving to the sound a certain roundness and fulness, thus contributing greatly, by the frequency of the diphthongs in which they occur, to the musical character of the Italian tongue.

Bugia

Bugia
Empia

Viola

Pronounced. báh-leeah bah-lée-ah

báh-leeo

bah-lée-o

báh-tcho bah-tchée-o

bóo-jah

boo-jée-ah
ém-peeah

lec-shée-ah
lée-shah

veeô-lah

vée-o-lah

It must be noted that there are vowels which come together Empia (for empira) em-pée-ah in words, but are, nevertheless, not diphthongs; as, Liscia for example, coagulare (ko-ah-goo-láh-rai), to coagulate; Liscia coerente (ko-ai-rên-tai), coherent; caos (káh-os), chaos; Viola coincidere (ko-in-tchée-dai-rai), coincide; raunare (rah-oo-núhrai), to assemble; aempiere (ah-êm-peeai-rai), fulfil; reale (raiah-lai), royal, real, loyal; riunire (ree-oo-née-rai), to reunite; viola (vée-o-lah), he violates; viottolo (vee-ót-to-lo), narrow passage or way, round-about way; Dione (dee-ó-nai), Dion; Tiziano (tee-tsee-áh-no), Titian; Teodoro (tai-o-do-ro), Theoore; riesco (rée-ê-sko), I succeed; reato (ai-áh-to), guilt or sin; paese (pah-ái-zai), country; reina (rai-ée-nah), queen; leone (lai-ó-nai), lion; mansueto (mahn-soo-ê-to), tame, gentle, mild.

[blocks in formation]

with regard to syllables :-
2. Words nearly the same as respects letters, but different
Italian.

Soffia

Sofia

[blocks in formation]

Pronounced.

Sóf-feeah

so-fée-ah

mahl-váh-jo
mahl-vah-gée-ah
prec-mée-tseeah

pree-mah-tsée-ah
er-bah-rée-ah
er-bah-reeo

3. General exercises in diphthongs:

Italian.

Aere
Paese

Caino

Traino

Pronounced.
áhai-rai
pah-ái-zai
láhee-do

English.
He blows

Sophia in Bulgaria.
Sophia, a woman's

[blocks in formation]

Traino

kah-ée-no
tráhee-no
trah-će-no
lée-nai-ah
ec-de-ah
ee-de-ai
lée-naiai

Ugly
Cain

The trot of horses

Sledge

A line

Idea

Ideas

Lines

Six

[blocks in formation]

Linea

Idea

Linee

Idee

Sei

Omei

Eolo

Some grammarians are of opinion that in cases of the coalition of three and sometimes four vowels in the Italian Laido language, those vowels form one syllable uttered with one and the same emission of the voice; and they term the coalition of three vowels a triphthong, and the coalition of four, a quadriphthong, if I may so express it. They have been, perhaps, led into that belief by the example of the poets, who in the middle of a verse use the triphthongs like one syllable. It is certainly allowable for Italian poets to count two or three syllables being mere vowels as one; but it would be strange to found grammar on poetical licences, which are, strictly speaking, exceptions to grammatical rule. The following examples, generally cited as triphthongs, are spelt like words of two syllables, though, as I have already observed, the poets use them in the middle of a verse like words of one syllable; and this is reason enough why they should not be considered triphthongs, i.e., coalitions of three vowels forming one sound and one syllable; as, miei (meeê-ee), my (pl.); tuoi (tooô-ee), thy Diana (pl.); suoi (sooô-ee), his (pl.); guai (gwah-ee), wailings; buoi (booô-ee), oxen; vuoi (vooô-ee), thou wilt; puoi (pood-ee), thou canst; appiuolo (ahp-pee-ooo-lo), a kind of apple-tree; cedriuolo (tchai-dree-ooo-lo), a cucumber; marinolo (mah-ree-ooo-lo), a sharper; vetriuolo (vai-tree-ooô-lo), vitriol, vitrious.

Leone

Euro

Creusa

[blocks in formation]

I have classed au as a separated diphthong where the first vowel is the ruling sound. There are, however, words containing that diphthong, in which u, the second, is the ruling sound; for example, paura (pahoo-rah), fear; baule (bahoo-lai), portmanteau; Saulle (sahool-la), Saul. But even in this class of words a and must be distinctly heard;, a, as the first of the vowels, cannot be glided over rapidly and absorbed by the u, as would be the case if a united diphthong. The diphthong au must therefore always

be classed among the separated diphthongs.

sê-ee

[ocr errors][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small]

For the sake of adhering to system, I am obliged here to anticipate the use of some combinations I have not yet explained, but which will be fully explained in the next lesson; as, for example, cio, gia, scia, &c.

principally in those words where the accent of tone falis on the I have stated that au is, strictly speaking, a diphthong, but second of the owels that compose it. It makes in its pronunciation the impression as if it were no diphthong at all, because each of account, I have ventured to place it amongst those words, the vowels is distinctly separated in pronunciation.

with vowels in coalition, that are not diphthongs.

On that

[merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][ocr errors][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small]

Encore que, although

Jusqu'à ce que, till, until that
Loin que, fur from, not that

Quoiqu'à peine à mes maux je
puisse résister,
J'aime mieux les souffrir, que de
les mériter.
RACINE.

En cas que vous persistiez, il fau-
dra que j'allégue au prince et au
roi même votre mauvaise santé.

FénéLON.

Malgré que, although

Nonobstant que, notwithstanding
Non que, not that

Non pas que, not that
Posé

que, supposing that

Pour que, that, in order that
Pourvu que, provided that
Quoique, although, though
Sans que, without that
Soit
que, whether
Supposé que, suppose that

Although I can scarcely bear my
misfortunes, I would rather suffer
under them, than deserve them.

In case you persist, I must mention your bad health to the prince

and even to the king.

[blocks in formation]

(2.) The collocation of words is the order according to which the several words which form a sentence should follow one another. This order is fixed for the several forms of sentences, affirmative, negative, and interrogative, by the genius of the language, and the practice of the best writers, (3.) The construction of the affirmative sentence is as simple in French as it is in English. The following is the arrangement of the words :

1. The Subject.

Le marchand

The merchant

2. The Verb.
est
is

3. The Adverb.
ici.
here.

(4) When the subject is accompanied by an adjective, or another attribute, the order is as follows:1. The Subject. 2. Its Attribute. 3. The Verb. 4. The Adverb.

Le marchand

The merchant

anglais English

est
is

ici.

here.

de votre ami

est

of your friend

[ocr errors][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small]

Le fils
The son
Le marteau
The hammer
Le bateau
The boat

de fer of iron

à vapeur

steam

ici.

[blocks in formation]

(7.) Long adverbs of manner, ending in ment, other long adverbs, and the adverbs of time and place, aujourd'hui, demain, hier, ici, là, are not placed between the auxiliary and the participle [ 136, S. 40, 5.]:

Nous avons écrit aujourd'hui, We have written to-day.
(8.) When there is a direct regimen in the sentence, it is
placed after the verb :-

1. Subject. 2. Attribute. 3. Verb. 4. Adverb. 5. Régime Direct.
L'écolier attentif apprend toujours
The scholar
learns always

[blocks in formation]

(10.) Should the direct regimen be followed by a relative pronoun, or by attributes rendering it longer than the indirect regimen, the latter is placed first:

• Some adjectives [ 85 (11.)] are generally placed before the noun, when used alone with a noun; but when another adjective comes with them, they follow the noun :-un petit homme, a little man; un homme petit et gros, a short, stout man; others have a different meaning before the noun or after it [86].

[merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][ocr errors][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small]
« ΠροηγούμενηΣυνέχεια »