that no possible difficulty can arise. Thus oxygen, meaning "the acid former," signifies a gas which entered into all the acids, the composition of which had been determined in the era of Lavoisier, of which acids it was said to be the acidifying principle. Not the slightest idea appears to have been entertained by Lavoisier that hereafter acids might come to light in whose composition oxygen did not even enter. Again, as regards combustion, the gas chlorine was known to Lavoisier and his associates, but the true nature of the gas was not hence known; it was incorrectly believed to contain oxygen, the combustive experiments, recently witnessed by us, were not at variance with the theory, or rather "dogma," of oxygen being the universal supporter of combustion.

The new chemical nomenclature, as we still call it-I mean the chemical nomenclature of Lavoisier and his associates during the early part of the first French revolution-is open to many objections of this kind. It reflects at once the genius of that remarkable era, and inculcates a precept that persons who introduce new terms should ever remember. The precept of naming things in reference to some evident property, not some theoretical one. Thus the term chlorine, expressive as it is of a yellowish-green colour, is totally independent of any theory of the constitution of that simple element; whereas the term oxymuriatic acid gas, formerly applied to it, is expressive of the assumed fact that it is a compound of oxygen and muriatic acid gases-an idea which was violently maintained by some chemists, even after Sir H. Davy had shown its unsoundness.

Compounds of Chlorine with other Bodies.-Although the present lesson, and the one immediately preceding, have been devoted especially to the examination of chlorine, nevertheless the student will have acquired, under various collateral heads, much previous information regarding this element. Thus, for example, in the lessons relating to silver, lead, and mercury, especially the former, he will have been made acquainted with the peculiarities of the chlorides of these metals. Accordingly, in summing up the relations of chlorine, and the means of detecting it, we shall presently have to detail several facts already made known. Thus, indeed, it is in every part of chemistry: facts are allied circularly, as it were, one with another, so that, proceeding with our investigations, we in the end come back to the point where we set out.

Effect of Chlorine on soluble Silver Salts.-If we pour a little aqueous solution of nitrate of silver, or any soluble silver salt, into a jar containing chlorine gas, or into a little aqueous solution of that gas, we obtain the acidy white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble in ammonia. It is, in point of fact, the chloride of silver, already treated of in various preceding lessons. The student, no doubt, remembers its properties well. If the reader now finally ask himself what this and the preceding lesson has taught him that he did not know before, he will arrive at the following conclusions.

(1) That, whereas previous information taught him the chemical properties of chlorine in combination; present information has taught him how to recognise chlorine when free or uncombined; taught him by the following signs.

(2) Free chlorine alone is that which dissolves gold leaf and bleaches, although chlorine, in any soluble condition, yields with soluble silver salts the chloride of that metal.

(56.) Let x be the number of pence he had at first. Then x= } x + z x + zx + 26, per question, Or, 60x20x + 15x + 12x + 1560,

And 13x 1560;

Therefore x 120 pence, or 10s.

(57.) Let x be his age.

Then xxxx, per question.
Whence2=x,

Or, ex 1, by reduction and divsion by z;
Therefore x = 16.

(58.) Let x be the time expired.

Then 99x is the time to come,
Whence (99-x), per question.
Or, 10x 1188-12x,

Whence 22x=1188;

Therefore x = 54.

(59.) Let z be his age.

(60.)

Then xxx + x + 4, per question. Or, 21x3x + 7x + 7x +84,

And 4x 84;

Therefore x = 21.

Let x be the number required.

Then × × }x = {x × 1, per question, And 2, by multiplication,

=

Whence 4x27x2, by clearing of fractions,
Or, 4x= 27, by dividing by x2.
Therefore 64.

Note.-Dele the word hours in the answer. (61.) Let be the number of hours required. As the one travels 14 miles per hour, And the other

We have 1+1=156, per question. Or, 6x+5x=616,

Whence 11x=616;

Therefore = 56.

(62.) Let x be the number of days required.

Whence 4x112;

Therefore x 28,

And 46x=18.

In the answer, 1334 is misprinted for 14.

the second began,

Then 6 is the number of the hind-wheel.

100 x

100

Whence +

=

20

11

163

=

120x+x 126+x

Whence (126+x)(31x+120) = (120+x)(30x+180),
And +246x=6480.

To solve this equation, which is an adfected quadratic, by the Hindoo method, as we have been requested, we first multiply both sides by four times the co-efficient of the first terin (that is, of a), and we have

4x2+984x25920;

We have thus completed the solutions of the whole Centenary of Problems given in No. 101, pp. 342-315. Many of our students will recognise their own solutions, of which we have freely availed ourselves, in order to encourage them to proceed in this interesting study; but it was impossible to particularise the names of all the students who solved every individual problem, otherwise we should have filled a whole number with their names repeated from fifty to 100 times. We give, however, in the following list, the names of those who succeeded in their solutions, and the number of problems which they solved :

H. D. Davis, Maida Hill, 100 problems; James Wardle, Dean Mills, Bolton, 94;* James Russell, Chislehurst, Kent, 90; Simplicitas, Wemyss, Kirkaldy, 97; W. Pardoe, Lye, 61; Antodidactos, Knottingley, 60; J. Buchanan, Murrayfield, Edinburgh, 50; R. Parkinson, Everton, 50; W. Ward, 35; D. Hornby, Driffield, 34; M. C. Gascoigne, Amershamroad, New Cross, 30; John Pogson, Quick View, Mossley, 30;. A. Storr, Highgate, 21; W. Kerslake, Carlisle, 25; J. II. Eastwood, Middleton, 24; G. Smith, Manchester, 19; T. Bocock, Great Warley, 16; T. K. B., Stalybridge, 15; J. Johnson, Marske, 13; J. Jenkins, Pembroke Dock, 12; J. per question. Redfern, 12; Anna Pringle, Ferry Hill, Durham, 8; W. Martin, New Swindon, 7; A. Smith, Marske, 7; J. Marehall,

1

1

9

1

10

1

1

10

8

1

10

2

1

Mr. Wardle solved 18 problems in pp. 329, 330, vol. iv.

Sandyford, Newcastle, 6; T. Grisdale, Penrith, 6; J. Wilkinson, Guildford, 6; E. Lowe, Cheshire, 4; J. Parker, Norfolk, 4; J. Verini, Welbeck-street, 4; G. Fox, Bedford, 2; and W. Cotcheifer, West York Militia, 1, the last, which is an adfected quadratic. It is proper to remark that some of those who solved the fewest, selected the most difficult; and thus they showed that they were able to do the rest. The result of these solutions is, on the whole, very gratifying to us, as many of the students have assured us that they never had any instructions in algebra, but what they received in the P.E. It shows, also, that our national system of education has been very successful.

LESSONS IN READING AND ELOCUTION.
No. X.

ANALYSIS OF THE VOICE.

1 VIIL-CORRECT INFLECTIONS.

INFLECTION' in elocution signifies an upward or downward 'slide' of voice, from the average, or level, of a sentence.

There are two simple inflections' or 'slides,'-the upward or rising,' and the downward or falling.' The former is usually marked by the acute accent []-the latter, by the grave accent [].

The union of these two inflections, on the same syllable, is called the circumflex,' or wave. When the circumflex commences with the falling inflection, and ends with the rising, it is called the rising circumflex,'-[marked thus ]; when it begins with the rising, and ends with the falling, it is called the falling circumflex,'-[marked thus ^].

When the tone of the voice has no upward or downward slide, but keeps comparatively level, it is called the monotone,-marked thus -].

Examples. Rising inflection:-'Intensive,' or high, upward slide, as in the tone of surprise, "Ha! Is it possible!" In the usual tone of a question that may be answered by Yes or No, "Is it really so?" Moderate' rising inflection, as at the end of a clause which leaves the sense dependent on what follows it. "If we are sincerely desirous of advancing in knówledge, we shall not be sparing of exertion." Slight' rising inflection, as when the voice is suddenly and unexpectedly interrupted: "When the visitor entered the room-" The last mentioned inflection may, for distinction's sake, be marked as above, to indicate the absence of any positive upward or downward slide, and, at the same time, to distinguish it from the intentional and prolonged level of the monotone.'

Falling inflection:-'Intensive,' or bold and low downward slide, as in the tone of anger and scorn: "DOWN, soothless insulter!"

The 'full' falling inflection, as in the cadence at a period: "All his efforts were in vain."

The moderate' falling inflection, as at the end of a clause which forms complete sense: "Do not presume on wealth; it may be swept from you in a moment.' "The horses were harnessed; the carriages were driven up to the door; the party were seated: and, in a few moments, the mansion was left to its former silence and solitude."

The suspensive,' or slight falling inflection, as in the members of a series, or sequence of words and clauses, in the same syntactical connexion: "The force, the size, the weight of the ship, bore the schooner down below the waves." irresistible force, the vast size, the prodigious weight of the ship, rendered the destruction of the schooner inevitable."

"The

The 'suspensive' downward slide is marked as above to distinguish it from the deeper inflection at the end of a clause, or of a sentence.

TABLE OF CONTRASTED INFLECTIONS.

The Rising followed by the Falling.

1. "Will you go, or stay?"

2. "Will you ride, or walk?"

3. "Did he travel for health, or for pleasure?"

4. “Does he pronounce correctly, or incorrectly?"

5. "Is it the rising, or the falling inflection ?"

The Falling followed by the Rising.

1. "I would rather gò than stay."
2. "I would rather walk than ride."
3. "He travelled for health, not pleasure."
4. "He pronounces correctly, not incorrectly."
5. "It is the falling, not the rising inflection."
Examples of Circumflex.

Tone of Mockery. "I've caught you, then, at lâst!"
Irony. "Courageous chief!-the first in flight from pain!"
Punning. "And though heavy to weigh, as a score of fat
sheep,

He was not, by any means, heavy to sleep."
Example of Monotone.

Awe and Horror.

"I could a tale unfold whose lightest word
Would harrow up thy soul, freeze thy young blood,
Make thy two eyes, like stars, start from their spheres,
Thy knotted and combined locks to pārt,
And each particular hair to stand on end,
Like quills upon the fretful pòrcupine."

Rules on the Rising Inflection.

RULE I. The intensive' or high rising inflection, expresses surprise and wonder. Example." Há! laugh'st thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn?"

RULE II. The 'moderate' rising inflection takes place where the sense is incomplete, and depends on something which fol lows. Example." As we cannot discern the shadow moving along the dial-plate, so we cannot always trace our progress in knowledge."

Note. Words and phrases of address, as they are merely introductory expressions, take the 'moderate rising inflection. Example 1.-" Friends, I come not here to talk." 2. "Sír, I deny that the assertion is correct." 3. "Sóldiers, you fight for home and liberty!"

Exception.-In emphatic and in lengthened phrases of address the falling inflection takes place. Example 1.-"On! ye brave, who rush to glory or the grave!" 2. "Soldiers! if my standard falls, look for the plume upon your king's helmet!" * 3. "My friends, my followers, and my children! the field we have entered, is one from which there is no retreat." 4. "Gentlemen and knights-commoners and soldiers, Edward the Fourth upon his throne, will not profit by a victory more than you."

RULE III. The suspensive, or slight rising inflection, occurs when expression is suddenly broken off, as in the following passage in dialogue.

Example.-Poet. "The poisoning dame Friend. You mean- P. I don't. F. You do."

Note. This inflection, prolonged, is used in the appropriate tone of reading verse, or of poetic prose, when not emphatic, instead of a distinct rising or falling inflection, which would have the ordinary effect of prosaic utterance, or would divest the expression of all its beauty.

Examples.

1. "Here waters, woods, and winds in concert join."
2. "And flocks, woods, streams around, repose and peace
impart."

3. "The wild brook babbling down the mountain's side;
The lowing herd; the sheepfold's simple bell;
The pipe of early shepherd, dim descried
In the lone valley; echoing far and wide,
The clamorous horn, along the cliffs above;
The hollow murmur of the ocean tide;

The hum of bees, the linnet's lay of love,t And the full choir that wakes the universal grove." 4. "White houses peep through the trees; cattle stand cooling in the pool; the casement of the farm-house is covered

Shouting tone. + See note *, p. 117.