Present participle (par-ti-ci-pio pre-sên-te), es-sên-te, being, existing (obsolete). Preterite participle (par-ti-cí-pio pas-sa-to), (Sing.) stá-to, m. stá-ta, f. (Plur.) stá-ti, m., stá-te, f., been. (Es-sú-to or sú-to, formerly used, are now quite obsolete). Present gerund (ge-run-dio pre-sên-te), es-sên-do (sometimes sên-do), being. Preterite gerund (ge-rún-dio pas-sá-to), es-sên-do stá-to, having been. verbe. same person, that not unfrequently four or more forms are found to express it, which either were used in former times and are now obsolete, or which are still used by the people of several provinces of Italy, or having formerly passed into the language of books, even now exclusively belong to poetry or to prose, or are common to both, and, principally on this account, their meanings, their goodness or faultiness ought to be known. By the great exertions of modern grammarians the vast variety of these forms has been much reduced, the obsolete have been altogether banished, the poetical separated from those of prose, and both from the vulgar ones; and thus a greater regularity and correctness has been introduced into modern Italian writings with regard to verbs, and a better choice. As I stated efore, I shall occasionally add some of the more important variations, in the shape of notes; but to be complete, or even satisfactory on this head, would require a separate work. Perhaps the best and most instructive Authority on the Italian verbs is "Marco Mastrofini Teoria e prospetto ossia dizionario critico de' Verbi Italiani, Roma," 1814, 2 vols. (now the fifth edition); who ought to be consulted by every one that wishes to read Italian poetry, and to become thoroughly acquainted with the Italian This mood, which either does not at all express the person and number of a verb, or not with the explicit clearness of the other parts of a verb, comprehends the infinitive (in-fi-ni-ti-vo), the participle, and the gerund. This is a pecullar form of the Italian verb, taken from the Latin, and as it is wanting in the English, it must be periphrased by means of the particles while, whilst, since, when, after, as, because, or by other modes of expression. Sometimes, not always, its use coincides with that of the English participle. That the latter is not always equivalent with the Italian gerund may be in the two following phrases:-il sa-cer-do-te, pre-di-can-te nel-la chiesa, the priest preaching in the church; and il sa-cer-do-te pre-di-cán do nel-la chie-sa, the priest whilst or when he preached in the church. In the first of these two phrases the present participle predicante is an adjective referring to a noun, while in the second the gerund predicando is the part some narration, and it will be only allowable to translate it with preach ing, when the phrase, the priest preaching in the church, is equivalent to the priest while or when he preached in the church. This nice shade of distinction is of importance in translating Italian writers, and even in conversation. The present gerund may express the present or the imperfect tense, which is easily ascertained by the sense, and particularly by the preceding or following verb, e. g., la gió-va-ne, u-den-do qué-ste pa-ro-le, disse, the young woman hearing (i. e. when she heard) these words said; ve-den-do-lo in pe-ri-co-lo, m' al-lon-la-no, seeing him (i. e. as I see him) in danger, I withdraw. The preterite gerund expresses the perfect or pluperfect. Not conju equivalent in all cases, but for the sake of brevity, I shall, in the conjugation of Italian verbs, translate the gerunds by English participles. With regard to pronunciation, it is important to know that in the gerunds of all verbs ending in endo, and in the present participles of all verbs ending is ente, the vowel e before n has the open sound, thus: en- do and en-te. This pronoun is not of frequent use in English, while si is of the most extensive application, and has, strictly speaking, according to the sense of the phrase, the following meanings: people, they, we, you, a person or Se-mo for siamo, se-te or siá-te for siete, and en-no for sono, they are, in Darms of the Florentine popular dialect; but though sometimes found in Dante, Petrarca, and Boccaccio, are out of use in good conversation and This tense is commonly called pas-sá-to im-per-fét-10, or pas-sú-to pendérte. The following sentence will show its use. mi-o fra-let-lo fiun-se nél-lo stés-so tém-po che f-o gli scri-vé-va, my brother came at the same faan, one. in writings. E-gli ê-ra, he was. Nói e-ra-và-mo, we were. * Vói e-ra-vá-te, you were. Indeterminate preterite (têm-po pas-sá-to re-mô-to). ↑ Tu fó-sti, thou wast. E-gli-no fu-ro-no, || they were. Determinate preterite (têm-po pas-sá-to prôs-si-mo),¶ Tu sê-i stá-to,-a, thou hast been, Nói siá-mo sta-ti,-e, we have been. they have been. time when I was writing to him: The word scriveva, was writing, is the imperfect, while giunse, came, is a different form of the preterite, which we shall call the indeterminate preterite. In narration both scriveva and giunse represent actions that are past, and on this account they must be both expressed by preterite tenses. But by comparing them with each other, it is evident that the act of writing, irrespective of the narration, wag not quite past in the moment of coming, that it still lasted, and even was, with regard to it, a present time, while the act of coming, at least with regard to the time of narration, was totally elapsed, an idea which is con➡ veyed in the Italian language by the indeterminate preterite. The appellations imperfect past (passato imperfetto), pending past (passato pendente). and present tense of the past (tempo presente di passato), are, therefore, appropriate terms for the tense of the verb scriveva. I shall adopt the last of them as the most expressive. It is clear that the English forms, I was writing, reading, walking, etc., frequently coincide with the use of the Italian imperfect. As a further illustration, may serve the two following sentences: m'a-spet-tá-va-no ál-la por-ta quán-do ar-ri-va-i, they were waiting for me at the door when I arrived; ciò ac-cad-de mén-tre i-o sta-va in cam-pá-gna, this happened while I was staying in the country. • Eramo for eravamo, and é-ri for eravate, are frequent forms of the Florentine dialect, and not a few persons even take it to be affected, in familiar conversation, to say eravamo. Eri for eravate is also in use in familiar writing, but it must be avoided as an erroneous provincialism in the language of books. Some pronounce e-ra-mo instead of e-rá-mo. This tense is also called pas-sá-to (per-fét-to) in-de-ter-mi-ná-to, and, as stated before, it denotes a past totally elapsed, i. e. an event, as well as the period of its occurrence, that are in no connexion whatever with the present time or the time of the narration. It is called indeterminate preterite, because the time elapsed may be a day, a year, a century, or any period of time, provided what was done yesterday or centuries ago is out of all connexion with the present. It is, alternately with the imperfect, the tense most frequent in narrations, and, strictly speaking, wanting in English, though the use of the English imperfect frequently coincides with it; e.g. db-be la dis-gra-zia di róm-per-si ú-na gám-ba, he had the misfortune to break his leg; fui in Ve-ne-zia nel tem-po dell' úl-ti-mo car-no-vá-le, I was at Venice at the time of the last carnival; Ce-sa-re fu am-maz-zá-to nel-la cú-ria di Pom-pe-o, Caesar was murdered in the curia of Pompeius. The occurrence in the first of these sentences may have taken place yesterday or years ago; that of the second is more accurately marked by the addition, nel tempo dell' adopted the appellation, passata remoto, as indicating by the word remoto, ultimo carnovale; and that of the third lies at a remote distance. I have remote, distant, the most characteristic use of this tense to relate what is at a more or less remote distance of time. Fós-si-mo or fussimo, for fummo, is a mode of the Roman popular dialect, by which the first person plural of the subjunctive of the imperfect is substituted for the same person plural of the indicative of the indeterminate preterite, a mistake to which the lower classes of Rome are liable with regard to all verbs. Fusti and fuste, for fosti and foste, are frequent in ancient writers, but now quite out of use. Furno, for furono, is a mode of the Florentine popular dialect; but furo and fur, also for furono, are good poetical forms, as well as fue for fu. Also pas-sá-lo (per-fet-to) de-ter-mi-ná-lo. This tenee in most cases coincides with that of the English perfect, expressing a past as connected with the present time, which may be an hour, a year, a century, or any period of the longest or shortest duration; e. g., ho ve-dú-to la re-gi-na, I I saw the queen (i. e. yesterday, or at any period not connected with the have seen the queen (i. e. just now, or a short time ago); ví-di la re-gi-na, present); qué-sta mat-ti-na só-no sta-to al Va-ti-cá-no, I have been this morning at the Vatican; je-ri fui al Va-li-cá-no, I was at the Vatican yesterday; in qué-sto sé-co-lo le scien-ze si só-no di molto per-fe-zio-ná-te, the sciences have been much perfectionated in this century. two very near events are spoken of, the more distant of them must be expressed by the indeterminate and the nearer by preterite; e. g., qué-sta mat-tí-na lo vi-di in buo-na sa-li-terminate Pho tro-vá-to am-ma-lá-to, this morning I saw him in good health, and now I have found him ill. It would be a mistake to say lo tro-va-i for When Indeterminate Pluperfect (têm-po tra-pas-sd-to prôs-si-mo).* I'-o ê-ra std-to-a, I had been. Tu ê-ri std-to,a, thou hadst been. Nói e-ra-vá-mo stá-ti,-e, we had been. E-gli-no (és-si) ê-ra-no state, they had been. Determinate Pluperfect (têm-po tra-pas-sá-to re-mô-to).† I'-o fui stá-to,-a, I had been. Tu fá-sti std-to-a, thou hadst been. E'l-la fu stá-ta, she had been. Nói fum-mo stá-ti,-e, we had been. E'l-le-no fu-ro-no sta-te, they had been. Conditional present (têm-po con-di-zio-ná-le pre-sên-te),❤ 1'-o sa-re-i, † or sa-ri-a, ‡ I should be. Tu sa-ré-sti, § thou wouldst be. E'-gli (él-la) sa-rêb-be, or sa-ri-a, || he (she) would be. Voi sa-ré-ste, you would be. E-gli-no (él-le-no) sa-rêb-be-ro, or sa-rêb-bo-no, or sa-ri- • Also; fu-tu-ro im-per-fet-to con-di-zio-na-le. This tense may likewise be called the subjunctive of the future, and the following tense, the conditional past, the subjunctive of the future past. With regard to both conditionals, it must be clearly understood, that they never express the condition or proviso itself; but that which is stipulated or made conditional, i. e. the result of a condition. The condition itself can only be expressed by the subjunctive of the imperfect (tempo passato di presente), or of the pluperfect (tempo trapassato), generally preceded by se, if. These two subjunctives in their use must strictly correspond with the two conditionals, i. e. the subjunctive of the imperfect goes with the conditional present, and the subjunctive of the pluperfect with the conditional past; e. g., se i-o stés-so non v'an-dás-si, non ot-te-ré-i má-i niễn-te, if I did not go there myself, I should not obtain anything; se í-o slés-so non vi fós-si an-dá-to, non a-vré-i má-i ot-te-nu-to niến-te, if I had not gone there myself, I should not have obtained anything. + The termination rei of all verbs has an open e, thus, re-i; e. g., a-meré-i, I should love; cre-de-ré-i, I should believe; sen-ti-ré-i, I should feel, etc. This is a popular rather than literary form of the first person singular of this tense, though in old poetry it was much in use. The terminations rés-ti, rém-mo, rés-te, of this tense, are, in point of pronunciation, alike in all verbs. Sa-ri-a-mo, for sa-rém-mo, is poetical. Sa-res-si-mo, for sa-rém-mo, is a frequent mistake of the Roman people in this verb, and, indeed, as regards the termination, in all verbs, while the people of Florence frequently say, sa-réb-ba-mo for sa-rem-mo; and in this point the two dialects, which are in many respects the purest, are equally faulty. l'ho trovato, and absurd to say, questa mattina l'ho veduto in buona salute, e adesso lo trovai ammalato, for what is next in time would be expressed by a tense denoting what is more remote, and what is more remote by a Saria, and, generally speaking, the termination ia, for ebbe, in the third tense denoting what is next. It is, however, allowable to express the more distant of these two events by the determinate preterite, when the person singular of this tense, is used in prose as well as in poetry, Fo-ra, for nearer of them is expressed by the present tense, thus avoiding the before- sarei and sarebbe, is poetical. The terminations of the conditionals in eb-be mentioned contradiction; e. g., questa mattina l'ho veduto in buona salute, and eb-be-ro or eb-bo-no, are, with regard to the pronunciation of the open e adesso lo tro-vo ammalato, I found him this morning in good health,, alike in all verbs. The termination b-bo-no, in all cases, is, by many, preferred to and now I find him ill. The appellation determinate preterite has been It is, like the termination given to this tense, because the near past expressed by it is a determinate b-be-ro, on account of its milder sound. portion of the past time; and the term passato prossimo, near past, adopted-a-no, more frequently used in poetry or in solemn prose. The termination by me is clear in itself. As a last remark, I may state, that when in Italiani-no, for i-a-no, e. g., sa-rié-no, for sa-ri-a-no, is also not inelegant, partisuch phrases are heard as quell' uo-mo ha riag-gia-to mól-to, that man has cularly in poetry: Fo-ra-no, for sa-réb-be-ro, is poetical. travelled a great deal; è sta-to nél-le In-die o-ri-en-tá-li, he has been in the East Indies; è stato in Ró-ma e non ha ve-dú-to il Pá-pa, he has been in Rome and not seen the Pope, etc., a near past is in the thoughts of the speaker, though the event may have occurred a long time ago. Or; tra-pas-sa-to in-de-ter-mi-ná-to. It is generally used to denote a past anterior to a determinate preterite (tempo passato prossimo); e. g., -o a-vě. va fi-ni-to il la-vó-ro, quán-do è venuto Lu-ca, I had finished the work, when Luke came; &0 a-té-ca ce-na-to, quân do tôi sự te en-trú-to, Khad taken supper when you entered. Or; tra-pas-sa-to de-ter-mi-ná-to. It is used to denote a past anterior to an indeterminate preterite (tempo passato remoto) that expresses some act or event closely following it. It is for the most part preceded by the conjunctions poi-chè, when, since, do-po-chè, after, su-bi-to-chè, as soon as, ap-pe-na, scarcely, just, no sooner, quán do, when, etc.; e. g., su-bi-to che b-bi scrit-to la let-te-ra, par-ti-i, as soon as I had written the letter I departed; lo in-con-trá-i quán-do fu u-sci-to dél-le car-ceri, I met him just when he had left the prison; do-po ch' eb-bi ve-du-to il re, mi ri-ti-rá-i, after having seen the king I retired; ap-pé-na fúm-mo èn-tra-ti nel bo-sco, che tre lá-dri ci as-sa-li-ro-no, we had no sooner entered the thicket than three robbers attacked us. This tense is wanting in English, as well as the indeterminate preterite (tempo passato remoto), without which its sense is never complete." Also; fu-tu-ro im-per-fét-to, or as-so-lú-to. In the singular the first person of the future of all Italian verbs has the open sound of o, thus, 6; e. g., a-me-rò, I shall love; te-me-ro, I shall fear; dor-mi-ro, I shall sleep; fa-ro, I shall do: a-ord, I shall have, etc., pronounced, a-me-ro, te-me-ro, dor-mi-ró, fa-ró, a-vro, etc. This person, moreover, has the grave accent on o in all Italian verbs. Old poets appear to have been no friends of accented terminations, and often said, sa-ro-e for sarò, and sa-rá-e for sarà. This person also of the future in the singular in all Italian verbs must have the grave accent above the a. ¶ In all Italian verbs the termination emo,whenever it is the first person plural, must be pronounced with a close e, thus, e-mo; e. g., par-le-re-mo, we shall speak; fa-re-mo, we shall do, etc. In all Italian verbs any persons terminating in ete must be pronounced with a close e, thus, é-te; e. g., fa-ré-te, you will do; di-ré-te, you will say, etc.; only sele, for sie-te, is pronounced se-te. pico-no, also fi-a-no, for sa-rán-no; and fi-a, also fi-e, for sa-rà, are, for the most part, used in poetry. # Also; fù-tú-ro per-jet-to, or re-la-tí-vo. QUERY BY A CORRESPONDENT. A pine, a hundred feet in height, So thus was formed with stump and ground A mesure que l'industrie et les arts mécaniques s'étendent et fleurissent, les arts les plus nécessaires, tels que l'agriculture, sont négligés. Le fils du cultivateur abandonne son champ, et laisse sa terre en friche pour aller chercher dans les villes le pain que l'industrie et les arts lui fournissent. Tel est Feffet réel qui résulte de l'industrie et du luxe : c'est ainsi qu'un état s'enrichit au nécessaire, nourrit gent pauyres dans les villes aux dépens de d'une côté pour s'appauvrir de l'autre, et que superflu, préféré dix mille qui périssent dans les campagnes.-J. J. Rousseau. LESSONS IN BOOKKEEPING.-No. XXII. exported are called Invoices Outwards, and the book which (Continued from page 148.) INVOICE BOOK. ANY account or bill sent along with goods sold to the party who has purchased them is called an Invoice. The invoices of goods sold in the country where the merchant resides are called Invoices Inwards, and the book which contains them the Invoice Book Inwards. The invoices of shipments or goods contains them is called the Invoice Book Outwards. In invoices outwards, besides the cost of the goods exported, there is generally a statement of the Charges attending their exportation, the cost of insurance, etc. The date is generally placed at the bottom, and before the signature of the shipper the words Errors Excepted, or their initials, are written, in order that he may be afterwards allowed to correct any mistake he may have made to his own disadvantage. In large concerns, the Invoice Book itself is journalized monthly instead of passing the entries through the Day Book. (1) INVOICE BOOK. (1) INVOICE of sundry Goods shipped by White, Smith and Co. on board the Dreadnought, Captain James, for Jamaica, by order, and on account and risk of Schofield, Halse and Co., of Kingston, being marked and numbered as per margin. (2) INVOICE BOOK. (2) INVOICE of 60 Barrels of Herrings, shipped at Liverpool by R. Hastie and Co., on board the Fury, Captain Thomson, for Barbadoes, on account and risk of Richard Sykes, of that place, being marked and numbered as per margin. INVOICE of sundry Goods shipped on board the Rainbow, Captain Browne, for Jamaica, by White, Smith and Co., on account and risk of John Roberts, of that place, being marked and numbered as per margin. LESSONS IN GREEK.-No. XXXIII. BY JOHN R. BEARD, D.D. Contracted Verbs which, contrary to the rule, retain the short Vowel. As in some uncontracted pure verbs, so in some contracted pure verbs, the short characteristic vowel of the root remains in the derived tenses. Most of these irregular verbs take o in the Perfect middle or passive and in the First Aorist passive, as well as in the tenses thence formed: this fact is indicated by the form " Pass, with σ.” They are the following : 1. ǎw. γελαω, I laugh, f. γελάσομαι, a. εγελάσα; pass. with σ. ελαω (commonly ελαυνω), I drive, f. ελάσω (Att. ελῶ), 2. ηλάσα, θλάω, I squash, f. θλάσω, etc.; pass. with σ. κλαω, I break, f. κλάσω, etc.; pass. with σ. χαλαω, I relax, unbind, f. χαλασω, etc.; pass. with σ. Ραμαω (commonly δαμάζω), I tame (Lat. domo), a. εδαμάσα. περαω, I carry over, f. περάσω, a. επερᾶσα; but περαω, I go over, (intrans.) f. περάσω, a. επερᾶσα. σπάω, I draw asunder, (spasm,) f. σπάσω, etc.; pass. with σ. σχάω, I loosen, open, f. σχάσω, etc. Αor. εσπάσθην, ετελεσθην, ηροθήν. Fut. σπασθησομαι, τελεσθησομαι, αποθησομαι. The further dexions of εσπασμαι, εσπασμην, τετελεσμαι, ετετελεσμην, are like κεκελευσμαι, εκεκελευσμην, already spoken of. The following contracted verbs take in the passive, though they lengthen the characteristic vowel in the tenses; namely : νεω, I spin, νενησμαι and νενημαι, but ενήθην. νεω, I heap up, νενησμαι and νενημαι, but ενησθην. πλέω, I sail, πλευσομαι, επλευσα, πεπλευκα, πεπλευσμαι, επλευσθην. φρεω, only in compounds, as εκφρεω, I carry out, εκφρήσω. χρω, I accumulate, χωσω. χραω, I give an oracular response, εχρησάμην. χραομαι, I use, has in the Perfect mid. κεχρημαι, I have used, but in the Aorist passive εχρησθην, I was used. On the contrary, ελαω, αινέω, αἱρεω, δεω, and αροw do not take the o, though the characteristic vowel in the Perfect middle or passive and in the Aorist passive remains short. These minute particulars, attention to which is required by a regard to that exactitude in which lies the best mental discipline of linguistical studies, require not only care, but the exercise of the memory. You must review the facts repeatedly, and you must repeat the forms in your mind and on your tongue, until you become, so to say, imbued with them, and know right from wrong, as by a kind of instinct. VOCABULARY, Eaw, I allow, permit. come after. Ατυχέω, I am unfortunate. rality (Lat. illiberalitas), penuriousness, sordid spirit. Αγρος, ου, ὁ (Lat. ager, German acker, our acre), a field. | Ιατρος, ου, o, a physician. Λύσανδρος, ου, δ, Lysander. Μακεδων, ονος, δ, a Macedonian. Οδυσσευς, εως, δ, Ulysses, Έλκος, ους, το, a wound (Lat, ulcus, Eng. ulcer). Καρπομαι, I gather fruit, I | Καίριος, α, ον, seasonable. enjoy fruit. Ύψος, I elevate. Λογιζομαι, I think, consider (λόγος). Σφάλλω, I make totter, I trip up. Ανελευθερία, ας, ἡ (α privative. and ελεύθερος, free, generous, Lat. generosus), illibe Λογιος, α, ον, eloquent (elo quent is from loquor, I speak, as λογιος is from λογος). Πενιχρος, α, ον, poor. Σιωπηλος, η, ον, silent. Αδαημων, or, gen. ονος, inex perienced, unskilful. Μηδέποτε, never (with the imper., and the subj. aorist used imperatively.) REMARKS. Οἱ Λεωνιδαν, lit. those around Leonidas; which means, περι Leonidas and his warriors. Τῳ λογίζεσθαι, by the force of sound thought, Σφαλλει: take the words in this order, τυχη σφαλλει εκεί νους, etc. Ούτε τῳ; observe here a pecularity in the use of the parti ciple and the article, e.g. τψ καλως αγρον φυτευσαμένῳ, lit. to the (man) having well a field planted; that is, to a man who . |