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LESSONS IN GREEK.-No. XXXIV.

By JOHN R. BEARD, D.D.

PERMUTATION OF CONSONANTS.

Tas variations in letters which have come under our notice are not arbitrary, but these, with others, depend chiefly on euphonic laws, or laws which regard to easy and pleasing sound imposes. These laws are in a measure common to all cultivated languages, but were specially observed by the Greeks, whose sense of hearing, as well as the other senses, was acute and refined. Of such laws or observances we have already spoken, in giving the uncontracted. and contracted vowel equivalents. The consonants also, in coming together, undergo changes according to determinate rules; and, as we are on the point of handling the verbs whose characteristic is a consonant, we will here say a few words respecting the permutation of consonants-meaning, by that term, the changes to which consonants are liable in their varying relations one to another.

Here I must draw your attention to what has been said respecting the consonants. You know that they are divided into liquids, namely, λ, μ, ν, ρ; and mutes, namely, π, κ, τ; β. γ. δ, φ, χ, θ; and that by the union of e with these the double consonants 4, 5, and š, are produced : thus

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You know, also, that the nine mutes are divided in three ways, namely, 1. the organ chiefly employed in pronouncing them, as, 1. palatals (pronounced by the palate), κ, γ, χ ι 2. Linguals (pronounced by the tongue), τ, δ, θ, called also dentals; and, 3. labials (pronounced by the lips), π, β, φ. Α second classification arises from considering what may be termed the predominant sound; thus, in x, y, x, you have a k sound, in τ, δ, θ, a t sound ; and in π, β, φ, ap sound. Compare in each of the sets the three consonants together, and you observe differences which have been made the basis of a third division into tenues (or slender), κ, τ, π; media (or mille), γ, δ, β; and aspirate (or aspirate), Χ, θ, Φ. The following, then, are the facts which regard the use and interchange of the consonants:

Apsound (π, β, φ) or a k sound (x, y, x) before a t sound f, C, θ: must be of the same kind with the t sound: that is, Pedare a tenuis, as r, you can place only a tenuis, as more; e a media, as 8, you can place only a media, as ẞ or y; bfore an aspirata, as e, you can place only an aspirata, asp or x 1933, you have #r and er; β' and γδ; φθ or χθ: with this Compure the Latin scriptum, ucritten, from scribo, I write; ram, raid, from regɔ," I rule; coctain, cooked, from coquo, I cool. Thus,

belure becomes

π, 38 γράφω, Ι write, γεγραφεται, γεγραπται

Ιet, βεβρεχεται, βίβρέεται

κυβλα

7, 23 πλέκω,

7, 28 βρεχω,

I send, επεμπάθην, επέμφθην

Ιrub, ετριβθην, ετρίφθην

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Nevertheless the Greeks say ουδείς (είς, one), not ουθες ; and λεγ' έτεραν, not λεχ' έτεραν, also τριβ' ούτως, not τριφ' ούτως.

These changes take place also in crasis, that is, where two vowels are mixed into one, as θάτερα from τα έτερα. If the tenues πr or et precede, both must be converted into aspirates, Ας έφθημέρας instead of έπτημερος (from έπτα, seven, and ήμερα, day).

A t sound (τ, δ, θ) before another t sound passes into o (so in the Latin claustrum, an inclosure, prison, from claudo, 1 shut), but in the Perfect and Pluperfect active is dropped before s ; as

επειθ-θην from πείθω, I persuade, becomes επεισθην
πειθ-τεος 19
ηρειδ-θην ερειδω, I prop,

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πειστέος

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ηρεισθην

πεπειθικ KOOL πείθω, I persuade,

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πέπεικα.

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π, 23 τριβω, Ιγιό, τετριβεται, τετριπται

3. t sound, ηνυτ-μαι

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Ε, 13 λέγω, I speake, λελεγεται, λέλεκται

Τ

*, 23 βρέχω,

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βρεχ την,

γραβίην πλέγδην βρεχλην

k

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ελεγθην, ελέχθην.

The preposition & remains unaltered before & and 0, as

είναι, εκθείναι, είς. not εγδοῦναι and εχθειναι.

Get sienter, namely, π, κ, 7, pass into the corresponding The tennes, called by some hard, by others sharp, and by | upurate, sip rates,, x, e, not only in derivations and in

.

I weare, επλεκ-θην, επλέχθην

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Compare οψ, οπ-ος, the voice; χερνίψ, χερνι-βος, consecrated water; νιψ, νιφ-ος, snow ; κοραξ, κορακος, α γαven; αιξ, αιγος, a goat; pwvvě, μwvvx-os, not cloven-footed; yeλws, yeλwr-og laughter; Xaunas, Xaμwad-os, a torch; opvis, opril-os, a bird; ελπις, ελπιδος, hope.

Compare, also, in the Latin, duxi from duco, rexi from rego, and cori from coquo. As an exception, in the preposition & the x before a remains, as exσww, I save.

But in the passive or middle inflexions beginning with 0 of the verbs just mentioned θαπτω and τρέφω, the aspirates remain; as

N vanishes before a, and if is connected with a t sound both sounds vanish before ; but the short vowel before the is lengthened, that is to say, & into e, o into ov, and à, i, v, into ā, ī, v; as

σπείσω

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εθρεφ-θην, θρεφ-θηναι, θρεφ-θησεσθαι, τεθράφθαι, εθαφ-θην, θαφθεις, θαφθησομαι, τεθάφθαι, The two flexional terminations of the imperative First Aorist passive would both begin with an aspirate, as one, but the latter aspirate is changed into its tenuis, as Onri, e. g. BovλevOnri; nevertheless the termination et appears in the Second Aorist passive, as τριβηθι.

Finally; the liquid p is doubled, 1. with the augment, as Eppov; 2. in compounds when the p is preceded by a short vowel, as appηkтog, unbroken, indestructible, ẞa@vppovs, flowing deep; but upworoc (from ev and pwvvvμi, I strengthen), very strong, with only one p, since ev is long.

δαιμον-σι becomes δαιμοσι οδοντασι becomes ἰδοῦσι τυφθεντ-σι τυφθεῖσι ἑλμινθ-σι ελμίσι σπεδάσω δεικνυντ-σι δεικνῦσι τυψαντ-σι τυψᾶσι Ξενοφωντ-σι, Evopwo The following are exceptions:-Ev, as Evorelow, I sow in; Taxiv, as waλivokios, thickly shaded; some inflexions and derivations in oal and ois, as repavoal from paure, I show, and a few substantives in g and vvg. The v in ovv in compounds before o and a following vowel passes into o, as ovooww; but if after a o with a consonant or a follows, then the disappears, as συν-στημα, σύστημα ; συν-ζύγια, συζυγία,

An exception to the extension of into & before v and a t sound appears in the adjectives which end in us, tooa, v, the dative plural masculine and neuter of which is to instead

οι εισι.

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FRENCH READING S.-No. XVII.

CHARLES I

COURAGE ET GRANDEUR DANS L'INFORTUNE.

SECTION V.

Quand il eut revêtu ses habits de fête, ainsi qu'il le désirait, il demeura1 en prières jusqu'à midi. Alors il mangea un morceau de pain et but un verre de vin. Puis la fenêtre de son appartement à Whitehall s'étant ouverte, il put apercevoir au milieu des soldats de Cromwell l'appareil de son supplice. Il le vit sans crainte. Comme on était au trente de janvier, et que le roi sentit que la saison était rigoureuse, il dit à Herbert:

χεχυκα θε-θύκα θι-θημι 2. In the Aorist and First Future passive of the two verbs Over, to sacrifice, and rilevai, to place, as

Il fait froid, ils croiraient que je tremble de peur; donnez-moi mon manteau.

ετυ-θην, τυ-θησομαι, ετε-θην, τεθησομαι, instead of εθυσθην, etc.
3. In some words whose root begins with the aspirate 0 and
ends with an aspirate, e. g.

ΘΡΙΧ: θριξ, τριχος, hair, but the dative plural is θριξιν
OAX: Taxvs, swift, comparative Oarrov
ΘΑΦ: θάπτω, I bury, aor. 2. pass. εταφην
ΘΡΕΦ: τρέφω, I nourish, fut. θρεψω, aor. έθρεψα.

Herbert lui jeta son manteau sur les épaules. Le roi marcha ensuite d'un pas ferme à l'échafaud tendu de noir. Il considéra d'un œil calme les instruments 10 du supplice et parut s'étonner que l'échafaud ne fût pas plus élevé. Il adressa la parole à quelques-uns de ceux qui l'approchaient de plus près, leur déclarant de nouveau qu'il 12 n'avait point à se reprocher d'avoir commencé la guerre ce qui depuis contre le parlement anglais; mais il avoua long-temps affligeait son âme. Il dit que le ciel le punissait justement d'avoir consenti à l'arrêt de mort iniquement prononcé contre son noble ministre le comte de Strafford. Il répéta qu'il pardonnait à tous ses ennemis. L'évêque Juxou lui adressant des consolations :

Here belongs also the verb xw, I have, instead of ixw, fut. έξω ; aor. ἔσχον instead of εσεχόν,

13

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--Souvenez-vous.

Alors posant sa tête sur le billot, il éleva ses mains 18 comme pour donner lui-même le signal. D'un seul coup l'un de ses deux bourreaux, qui étaient des hommes masqués, lui trancha la tête; l'autre la saisit toute sanglante et la montra au peuple.

Ainsi périt le roi Charles premier d'Angleterre dans la quarante-neuvième année de son age. La mort également courageuse 20 et résignée du malheureux roi de France, Louis seize, devait faire, à la fin du siècle suivant, le terrible pendant de la sienne.

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L'HOMME est dans ses écarts, un étrange problème.1
Qui de nous en tout temps est fidèle à soi-même ?
Le commun caractère est de3 n'en point avoir;b
Le matin incrédule, on est dévot le soir,
Tel s'élève et s'abaisse au gré de l'atmosphère
Le liquide métal balancé sous le verre.
L'homme est bien variable; et ces malheureux rois,"
Dont on dit tant de mal, ont de bon quelquefois.
J'en conviendrai sans peine, et ferai mieux encore;
J'en citerai pour preuve un trait qui les honore;
Il est de ce héros, de Frédéric second,
Qui tout roi qu'il était, fut un penseur profond.
Il voulait se construire un agréable asile,
Où loin d'une étiquette arrogante et futile,
Il pût, non végéter, boire et courir les cerfs,
Mais des faibles humains méditer les travers.
Sur le riant coteau par le prince choisi,
S'élevait le moulin du meunier Sans-Souci.
Le vendeur de farine avait pour habitude,
D'y vivre au jour le jour, exempt d'inquiétude;
Et de quelque côté que vints souffler le vent,"
Il y tournait son aile, et s'endormait content.
Fort bien achalandé, grâce à son caractère,12
Le moulin prit le nom 13 de son propriétaire ;
Et des hameaux voisins, les filles, les garçons
Allaient à Sans-Souci pour 14 danser aux chansons.
Sans-souci.... ce doux nom d'un agréable augure
Devait plaire aux amis des dogmes d'Epicure.
Frédéric le trouva 15 conforme à ses projets,
Et du nom d'un moulin honora son palais.
Hélas! est-ce une loi sur notre pauvre terre

Que toujours deux voisins auront entre eux la guerre ;
Que la soif d'envahir17 et d'étendre ses droits
Tourmentera toujours les meuniers et les rois ?
En cette occasion, le roi fut le moins sage;
Il lorgna 18 du voisin le modeste héritage.

On avait fait des plans,19 fort beaux sur le papier,
Où le chétif enclos se perdait tout entier,
Il fallait sans cela 20 renoncer à la vue,
Rétrécir les jardins et masquer l'avenue.
COLLOQUIAL EXERCISE.

1. Par quelle réflexion le mor

ceau commence-t-il?

2. Quelle question l'auteur fait-il ensuite?

3 Que dit-il du caractère humain?

Comment compare-t-il le caractère humain avec le vifargent du thermomètre ?

5. Que dit-il des rois ?

6. Que va-t-il citer pour preuve de son argument?

7. De qui ce trait est-il ?

8. Que voulait se construire le roi?

9. Qu'y avait-il sur le coteau choisi par le prince?

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Des bâtiments royaux l'ordinaire intendant
Fit venir le meunier,' et d'un ton important:

-Il nous faut ton moulin; que veux-tu qu'on t'en donne?
-Rien du tout; car j'entends3 ne le vendre à personne.
Il vous faut, est fort bon . . . . mon moulin est à moi,
Tout aussi bien, au moins, que la Prusse est au roi.
-Allons, ton dernier mot, bon homme, et prends y garde.
-Faut-il vous parler clair ?-Oui.-C'est que je le garde:
Voilà mon dernier mot. Ce refus effronté

4

Avec un grand scandale au prince est raconté,
Il mande auprès de lui le meunier indocile;
Presse, flatte, promet; ce fut peine inutile,
Sans-Souci s'obstinait.-Entendez la raison,
Sire, je ne peux pas vous vendre ma maison:

Mon vieux père y mourut, mon fils y vient de naître ;
C'est mon Potsdam, à moi. Je suis tranchant peut-être ;
Ne l'êtes-vous jamais? Tenez, mille 10 ducats,
Au bout de vos discours, ne me tenteraient pas,

Il faut vous en passer,h je l'ai dit, je persiste.

Les rois, malaisément, souffrent qu'on leur résiste,
Frédéric un moment par l'humeur emporté ;
-Vraiment, de ton moulin" c'est bien être entêté ;
Je suis bon de vouloir t'engager à le vendre!
Sais-tu que sans payer je pourrais bien le prendre?
Je suis le maître.-Vous!.... de prendre mon moulin ?
Oui,12 si nous n'avions pas des juges à Berlin.

Le monarque, à ce mot, revient de son caprice.13
Charmé que sous son règne on crût1 à la justice,
Il rit, et se tournant vers quelques courtisans ;
-Ma foi, Messieurs,14 je crois qu'il faut changer nos plans.
Voisin, garde ton bien, j'aime fort ta réplique,
Qu'aurait-on fait de mieux dans une république ?

Le plus sûr est pourtant de ne pas s'y fier; 15
Ce même Frédéric, juste enviers un meunier,
Se permit maintes fois telle autre fantaisie; 16
Témoin ce certain jour qu'il prit la Silésie;
Qu'à peine sur le trône, avide de lauriers,
Epris du vain renom qui séduit les guerriers,

Il mit l'Europe 17 en feu. Ce sont là jeux de Prince;
On respecte un moulin, on vole une province.

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ANDRIEUX.

8. Que dit Sans Souci au mo narque?

9. Pourquoi ne voulait-il pas vendre sa maison ?

10. Qu'ajouta-t-il à l'égard du prix ?

11. Que lui dit Frédéric em. porté par l'humeur ?

12. Quel fut la réponse de notre ami Sans-Souci?

13. Quel effet ces paroles eurent❤ elles sur le monarque?

14. Que dit-il aux courtisans en 16. Que se permit maintes fois-
se tournant vers eux?
ce même monarque?
15. Quel est le plus sûr en pa- 17. Quels sont ces jeux de
reille circonstance ?
prince?
NOTES AND REFERENCES.--a. fit venir, sent for.-b. L. S. 47,
R. 2.-c. à moi, mine; L. S. 46, R. 5.-d. est, belongs; L. S. 46,
R. 5.-e. allons, come-f. mande, summons.g. from tenir; L.
part ii., p. 108. Tenez is often used in familiar discourse, to call
attention; here it might be rendered by now-h. L. S. 38, R. 1.
--i: from croire; L. part ii., p. 84.-j. en, on.-k. L. S. 80, R. 1.

CORRESPONDENCE.

IRISII CORRESPONDING SOCIETY. SIR,-I and one of my friends, who have a liking for the Irish language, would feel obliged by a "Lover of Irish sending us his address, so that we may form a Mutual Corresponding Society. I have no doubt that you, Mr. Editor, will forward the letter to me, as you know my name and address.-Yours obediently, SAGSONACH.

AN ACROSTIC.

BY HENRY DRIVER, TENTERDEN.
The man who knowledge would obtain,
Has now the path thereto made plain;
E ach may the treasure find.

Pure fountains flow at trifling cost,
Our labour now cannot be lost;
Pray cultivate the mind!
Unceasing are the efforts made,
Large sums, indeed, are often paid,
A fleeting toy to gain;

Resolve this precious pearl to win-
Endure, when you the task begin;
Determine to attain !

Up and be doing what you can,
Consult the author of this plan,
And he will soon reply;

The "EDUCATOR" aims to be,
On all occasions, frank and free;
Remember this, and try.

June 12th, 1854.

ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS.

For thrice her age will surely make The age of him she vowed to take As her own husband, and to strive And please him, though he's forty-five. PHILOSOPHUS (Dover): Mis hint about the manipulation of glass will be will saturate with spirits of turpentine that part of the leaves where they kept in view.-J. STOTT (Sowerby), in answer to A. Hawkins, says, "If he are greased, and placing a piece of porous paper next each page, closing the book and putting weights on it for a few days, he will then find a large peated until it be entirely gone." The process of pill-box making is, we quantity, if not all, of the grease taken out; and the process may be rebelieve, protected by a patent.-DELTA (Poole): If he consult the P. E., 345, and 347; and vol. v. p. 100, he will find all the information he requires vol. ii. p. 213; vol. iii. pp. 119, 295, and 323; vol. iv. pp. 207, 220, 224, 288, relating to the University of London.-UN ANGLAIS (Lisle-street): We do not undertake to decide questions between contending parties without a handsome fee.-W. M. HALE (Birmingham): The Lessons in English are finished.

A. C. (Macclesfield), T. Bocock (Great Warley), J. RUSSELL (Chisle hurst): Their answers to the Two Towers' Query are all right.-J. BAIN (Hill-head): Unless we knew what his "after labours" were to be, we could not advise; he is asking us to make bricks without straw."-LOVER OF KNOWLEDGE (Long Crendon) informs H. H. Ulidia, and our readers, calculation, afterwards obtained the best instruction-first in the College of that "Zarah Colburn, after astonishing the world by his power of mental Henry the Fourth at Paris; then in Westminster School, London, under the patronage of the Earl of Bristol. He afterwards became an extraordinary Wesleyan preacher. His powers, it is said, being nearly worn out by undue exercise, and his mind enfeebled rather than strengthened by the original predominance of one faculty, the memory, over the other faculties." See Dunn's Normal School Manual," p. 123.-A YOUNG MECHANIC: We can't tell.-W. WILLESEE (Wisbeach): The algebraic problem is right.S. HOLMES (Harden): Many thanks for his hints; they have been often pressed on us; but the scheme is Herculean.

LITERARY NOTICES.

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TIMMS (Chesterfield): His solutions are correct and elegant, but others are already inserted.-H. KILBURN (Dewsbury): The first two volumes of the P. E. may be had either in parts or in numbers at our office, or by applying to our country agents.-T. F. (Ayrshire): The solution by substitution of other quantities for z ory was not contemplated.-A. LAIDLAW (Cameron): His solution of the Two Tower Question is right.-MOSSLEY MECHANICS INSTITUTION, and W. ONN (Nottingham): Very good solutions received.-B. P. S. (Une embarassée), by consulting Cassell's French Dictionary, will find that "Croquemitaine" means "old bogy, black bogy," -S. M. J. (Wellington), and A. E. F. (Barrowden): We feel obliged by their politeness in forwarding the piece of poetry required.-STUDENT, etc. (Kingston-on-Thames): Photography will soon be treated of.-J. HARMITAGE (Little Horton): All right.-ARTIZAN (Edinburgh), in reference to the Marriage Question, says

If Miss was just quite a years old,
When she did get the ring of gold:
Then three times x must be the thing
For him who gave the marriage ring.
By adding fifteen, then, to each,
The sums will most distinctly teach,
That a plus fifteen taken twice,
Will solve the problem in a trice.
For three times x plus fifteen, now,
(Since they took first the marriage vow)
The former statement equals quite,
And clearly brings the truth to light,
That three times x plus fifteen will
Match two times x plus thirty still.
If now the terms we first transpose,
And then subtract, it clearly shows
That fifteen will the value be
Of a; and now we plainly see
That Miss was wed at sweet fifteen,
And Master's age will then be seen;

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ON PHYSICS, OR NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

No. XLI.

THE STEAM-ENGINE.

(Continued from page 210.)

ton, and had communicated with Mr. Fulton on the subject. Thus at Helensburgh, in the firth of Clyde, nearly opposite to Greenock-the birth-place of the illustrious Watt-and at a distance only of six miles, originated the first practical application of the modern steam-engine to the purpose of navigation in Europe, and the invention, also, of his own countryman. Very soon after this period, steam-navigation by paddleIn the first year of the present century, Mr. William Syming-wheels became general in Great Britain, and it thence extended ton, engineer, at the instance of Lord Dundas, made experi- over the Continent. ments on the application of steam to the propulsion of vessels on the Forth and Clyde Canal, which ended in the production of the first practical steam-boat, named the Charlotte Dundas. In this vessel there was an engine, with the steam acting on each side of the piston (Watt's patent invention), working a connecting-rod and crank (Pickard's patent invention), which was united to the axis of Miller's improved paddle-wheel (Symington's patent invention, 1801). Thus had Symington the undoubted merit of having combined together, for the first time, those improvements which constitute the present system of steam-navigation. In 1807, Mr. Robert Fulton, an American engineer, after having taken sketches and drawings of Mr. Symington's boat in Scotland, in 1801-as attested by the engineer left in charge of it went to America and built the steam-boat Clermont, which first plied between New York and Albany, and was reckoned the first steam-boat that was put into actual practice in America or elsewhere; but it was only a copy of the Charlotte Dundas. The first steam-boat that was put in actual operation was

The steam-engines most generally employed for the propulsion of steam-boats are the double-acting condensing engines of Watt. The working-beam of these engines is inverted so as to be placed near the bottom of the frame, because it would be both inconvenient and dangerous in a steam-vessel to place it above as in land-engines. Fig. 209 represents the elevation of an engine of this construction, built for a transatlantic packet, of 450 horse-power. In the figure, the shaded part of the eccentric shows one of the ends of the horizontal shaft on which are fixed the paddlewheels, which occupy the place of the fly-wheel in the fixed engines. The inversion of the working-beam of marine engines occasions the inversion and modification of all the rods attached to it; but the careful examination of the figure, or, what is better, the personal inspection of an engine of this kind on board of a steam-vessel, will convey a much more satisfactory idea of the arrangement of the parts than any laboured description; and after all, the marine engine is essentially the same as that described under fig. 204, in our

Fig. 209.

LO

the Comet, built by Mr. Henry Bell, of Helensburgh, in Dumbartonshire, in the year 1812. It began to ply for passengers upon the river Clyde, between Glasgow and Greenock, on the 5th of August of that year. It was a small vessel of thirty tons, and had an engine estimated at three-horse power. Mr. Bell had obtained a knowledge of the plans of Mr. Syming

It may be interesting to our readers to know that we had t attempts at of Mr. Bell's acquaintance, and that we saw some of his first the construction of an apparatus adapted for locomotion in a vessel on the Clyde, at his own house, "the Baths," at Helensburgh, in Dumbarton

he was modest and shy, and had nothing of the blustering boastfulness of

last lesson. In fig. 210, is a representation of such a vessel, and on the sides of it are seen the paddle-boxes which cover the paddle-wheels, and to which the horizontal or revolving shaft is attached; by this means the rotatory motion is imparted to the wheels, and rectilinear motion to the vessel. The screw-propeller appears now to have taken the place of the paddle-wheel in the case of steam navigation at sea. This occasions a variation in the form of the steam-engine, so that its power may be brought into as direct action as possible, without the intervention of machinery. The marine engines Boulton and Watt), Soho, Birmingham, at the Great Exhibition

thire. Like all real inventors and successful men in their own department, exhibited by the firm of Messrs. James Watt and Co. (late pretenders. He was the real individual who brought steam navigation of 1851, had four cylinders, each fifty-two inches in diameter

ito actual practice.

VOL. V.

119

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