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VIL-RIGHT EMPHASIS.

Emphasis distinguishes the most significant or expressive 9. words of a sentence.

It properly includes several functions of voice, in addition to the element of force. An emphatic word is not unfrequently distinguished by the peculiar time,' 'pitch,' 'stress,' and 'inflection' of its accented sound. But all these properties are partially merged, to the ear, in the great comparative force of the sound. Hence it is customary to regard emphasis as merely special force. This view of the subject would not be practically incorrect, if it were understood as conveying the idea of a special force superadded to all the other characteristics of tone and emotion, in the word to which it applies.

Emphasis is either 'absolute' or 'relative.' The former occurs in the utterance of a single thought or feeling, of great energy; the latter, in the correspondence or contrast of two or more ideas.

'Absolute' emphasis is either 'impassioned' or 'distinctive.' The former expresses strong emotion.-Example. "False wizard, AVAUNT!"-The latter designates objects to the attention, or distinguishes them to the understanding.—Ev. "The fall of man is the main subject of Milton's great poem." 'Relative' emphasis occurs in words which express comparison, correspondence, or contrast.-Example. "Cowards die many times; the brave but once."

Rules on Emphasis.

RULE I. Exclamations and interjections usually require 'empassioned' emphasis, or the strongest force of utterance. Examples. "Woe ! to the traitor, WOE!"- "UP! comrades UP!"" AWAKE! ARISE! or be for EVER FALLEN !" "Ye icefalls!

Motionless torrents! silent cataracts!

Who made you glorious as the gates of heaven,
Beneath the keen full moon?-

GOD! GOD! the torrents, like a shout of nations, Utter: the ice-plain bursts, and answers, GOD! The silent snow mass, loosening, thunders, GOD!" RULE II. Every new incident in a narration, every new object in a description, and every new subject in a didactic passage, requires distinctive' emphasis, or a force of utterance sufficient to render it striking or prominent.

Examples. "Their frail bark was, in a moment, overset, and a watery grave seemed to be the inevitable doom of the whole party." The eye rosted with delight on the long, low range of beautifully tinted clouds, which skirted the horizon." "The power of faith was the subject of the preacher's discourse.'

RULE III. All correspondent, and all antithetic, or contrasted words, require a force sufficient to distinguish them from all the other words in a sentence, and to make them stand out prominently. When the comparison or contrast is of equal force, in its constituent parts, the emphasis is exactly balanced, in the words to which it is applied: when one of the objects compared or contrasted is meant to preponderate over the other, the emphasis is stronger on the word by which the preponderance is expressed.

Examples. "The gospel is preached equally to the rich and to the poor.""Custom is the plague of wise men, and the idol of fools."-"The man is more KNAVE than fool."

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Exercises in Relative' Emphasis.

1. "VIRTUE is better than riches." "Study not so much to show knowledge, as to acquire it." 3. " They went out from us, but they were not of us.' 4. "He that cannot bear a jest, should not make one." 5. "It is not so easy to hide one's faults, as to mend them."

6. "I that denied thee gold, will give my heart." 7. "You have done that you should be sorry for."

10.

eye, but considerest not the beam || that is in thine own eye?"

"As it is the part of justice || never to do violence, so it is the part of modesty || never to commit offence."

"A friend | cannot be known || in prosperity, and an enemy cannot be hidden || in adversity."

NOTE. Emphatic clauses (those in which every word is emphatic) are sometimes pronounced on a lower, sometimes on a higher key, but always with an intense force.

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WALL !"

3. "But youth, it seems, is not my only crime: I have been accused of acting a THEATRICAL part.'

"

4. "As to the present ministry, I cannot give them my confidence. Pardon me, gentlemen: Confidence is a plant of SLOW growth."

General Remark. Young readers are commonly deficient in emphasis, and, hence, feeble and unimpressive, in their style of reading. Students should exert much vigilance on this point. At the same time, an overdone emphasis is one of the surest indications of defective judgment and bad taste. Faults which result from study are always the most offensive.

Exercise.

He

The true Christian must show that he is in earnest about religion. In the management of his worldly affairs, he must let it clearly be seen, that he is not influenced by a worldly mind; that his heart is not upon earth; that he pursues his worldly calling from a principle of DUTY, not from a sordid love of gain; and that, in truth, his treasures are in HEAVEN. must, therefore, not only " provide things honest in the sight of all men;" not only avoid every thing which is fraudulent and unjust in his dealings with others; not only openly protest against those iniquitous practices which the custom of trade too frequently countenances and approves ;-but, also, he must "let his moderation be known unto all men." He must not push his gains with seeming eagerness, even to the utmost LAWFUL extent. He must exercise forbearance. He must be content with moderate profits. He must sometimes even forego advantages, which, in themselves, he might innocently take, lest he should seem to give any ground for suspecting that his heart is secretly set upon these things.

Thus, also, with respect to worldly pleasures; he must endeavour to convince men that the pleasures which RELIGION furnishes, are far greater than those which the world can yield. While, therefore, he conscientiously keeps from joining in those trifling, and, too often, profane amusements, in which ungodly men profess to seek their happiness, he must yet labour to show, that, in keeping from those things, he is, in respect to real happiness, no loser, but even a GAINER by religion, He must avoid every thing which may look like moroseness and gloom. He must cultivate a cheerfulness of spirit. He must endeavour to show, in his whole deportment, the contentment and tranquillity which naturally flow from heavenly affections, from a mind at peace with GoD, and from a hope full of IMMOR

TALITY.

The spirit which Christianity enjoins and produces, is so widely different from the spirit of the world, and so immensely superior to it, that, as it cannot fail of being noticed, so it cannot fail of being admired, even by those who are strangers to its power. Do you ask in what particulars this spirit shows itself? I answer, in the exercises of humility, of meckness, of gentleness; in a patient bearing of injuries; in a readiness to forgive offences; in a uniform endeavour to overcome evil with good; in self denial and disinterestedness; in universal kindness and courtesy; in slowness to wrath; in an unwillingness to hear or to speak evil

8. "Why beholdest thou the mote that is in thy brother's of others; in a forwardness to defend, to advise, and to assist

Three degrees of emphasis are usually thus denoted in type: the first, by Italic letters; the second, by small capitals; and the third, by large capitale. Thus," You shall DIE, BASE DOG! and that before yon cloud has passed over the sun!"-Sometimes a fourth, by Italic capitals,-thus, "NEVER, NEVER, NEVER!"

them; in loving our enemies; in blessing them that curse us; in doing good to them that hate us. These are genuine fruits of true Christianity.

charging in a faithful, a diligent, and a consistent manner, The Christian must "let his light shine before men," by dissonal and particular duties of his station. the per

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As a member of society, he must be distinguished by a blameless and an inoffensive conduct; by a simplicity and an ingenuous ness of character, free from every degree of guile; by uprightness and fidelity in all his engagements.

As a neighbour, he must be kind, friendly, and accomodating. His discourse must be mild and instructive. He must labour to prevent quarrels, to reconcile those who differ, to comfort the afflicted. In short, he must be "ready for every good work;" and all his dealings with others must show the HEAVENLY PRINCIPLE which dwells and works in his HEART.

Exercise.

The real glory and prosperity of a nation does not consist in the hereditary rank or titled privileges of a very small class in the community; in the great wealth of the few, and the great poverty of the many; in the splendid palices of nobles, and the wretched huts of a numerous and half-famished peasantry. No! such a state of things may give pleasure to proud, ambitious, and selfish minds, but there is nothing here on which the eye of a patriot can rest with unmingled satisfaction. In his deliberate judgment,

"Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, Where wealth accumulates, and men decay; Princes and lords may flourish or may fade; A BREATH can make them, as a breath has made But a BOLD PEASANTRY, their country's pride, When once DESTROYED, can NEVER be supplied. It is an intelligent, virtuous, free, and extensive population, able, by their talents and industry, to obtain a competent support, which constitutes the strength and prosperity of a nation.

It is not the least advantage of a popular government, that it brings into operation a greater amount of talent than any other. It is acknowledged by every one, that the occurrence of great events awakens the dormant energies of the human mind, and calls forth the most splendid and powerful abilities. It was the momentous question, whether your country should be free and independent, and the declaration that it was so, which gave to you orators, statesmen, and generals, whose names all future

ages will delight to honour.

The characters of men are generally moulded by the circumstances in which they are placed. They seldom put forth their strength, without some powerfully exciting motives. But what motives can they have to qualify themselves for stations, from which they are for ever excluded on account of PLEBEIAN EXTRACTION? How can they be expected to prepare themselves for the service of their country, when they know that their services would be REJECTED, because, unfortunately, they dissent from the established religion, and have the honesty to

AVOW it!

But in a country like OURS, where the most obscure individuals in society may, by their talents, virtues, and public services, rise to the most honourable distinctions, and attain to the highest offices which the people can give, the most effectual inducements are presented. It is indeed true, that only a few who run in the race for political honour, can obtain the prize. But, although many come short, yet the exertions and the progress which they make, are not lost either on themselves or society. The suitableness of their talents and characters for some other important station may have been perceived; at least the cultivation of their minds, and the effort to acquire an honourable reputation, may render them active and useful members of the community. These are some of the benefits peculiar to a POPULAR government; benefits which we have long enjoyed.

FRENCH READING S.-No. XI.
FEDORA.
SECTION II.

elle; alors elle recueillite ce qui lui restait de forces et voulut s'enfuir. Mais, hélas! comment une enfant si faible, et dont tous les membres sont presque engourdis, pourra-telle échappper à ce danger? Déjà l'our est sur le point de l'atteindre, Fodora pousse un cri, appelant au secours. Par une faveur inespérée de la providence, au moment où la bête féroce se précipite sur elle, un coup de feu' part, et l'ours tombe. Bientôt un étranger arrive à la place où Fodora s'était arrêtée, à peine revenue de son effroi. Il regarde avec bonté et d'un acil de compassion cette enfants dont le ciel venait de lui confier le salut.

C'était un gentilhomme polonais appelé Polowski, il tira de sa gibecière de la viande froide, du pain, du vin, et en offrit à Fodora,1° ce qui la ranima bientôt. Puis il prit l'enfant par la main et l'emmena dans son château, éloigné d'environ deux lieues.

12

Là, Fodora accueillie avec bienveillance par la femme du noble Polonais, ne tarda pas à se rétablir de 13 toutes ses souffrances. Elle put alors leur raconter tout ce qu'elle savait de son histoire." Emus jusqu'aux larmes par le récit de l'enfant, Polowski et sa femme la comblèrent des plus touchantes caresses, 15 et Fodora n'cut bientôt plus que le souvenir de ses maux.

Plusieurs années s'écoulèrent 16 ainsi sans qu'on apprit rien des parents de Fodora. Cependant, elle avait grandi en sagesse et en beauté; rien n'avait été négligé pour former au bien son cœur et son esprit. Elle avait alors quinze ans. Chaque année, le jour de sa délivrance était un jour de fête.19 Durant l'une de ces réunions, tandis que Fodora racontait de nouveau les accidents de son enfance 20 si agitée, et passait en revue tous les bienfaits dont la comblaient tous les jours ses parents d'adoption, on entendit l'explosion d'un coup de feu parti à quelque distance du château.

Cependant Fodora parvint jusqu'en Pologne avec un détachement de troupes; plusieurs de ses compagnons de voyage avaient succombé, moissonnés par le froid ou par la faim, et les autres se dispersèrent tout à coup, de sorte que la petite Moscovite se trouva seule, abandonnée au milieu d'une forêt. Mourante de froid, ayant de la neige jusqu'aux genoux, elle vit soudain un ours se diriger vers

flocons et obscurcissait le ciel de manière à ce qu'on ne pût Le vent soufflait avec violence, 22 la neige tombait à gros rien voir à trois pas devant soi.

-C'est quelque voyageur égaré qui demande du secours ou qui est attaqué par les bêtes féroces,23 car il est impossible de se livrer au plaisir de la chasse par un temps semblable, s'écria Polowski, et il donna l'ordre à ses gens d'aller à sa recherche. Lui-même se mit à la tête du cortège,24 qui se dirigea vers la forêt. Quelque temps après, il reparut. Les domestiques portaient sur un brancard le corps d'un Russe ensanglante.25 Fadora se précipite au devant son compatriote; elle-même veut panser sa blessure. Bientôt celui-ci put témoigner sa reconnaissance aux hôtes du château et leur raconter son histoire.

COLLOQUIAL EXERCISE.

1. Où Fodora fut-elle con- | 14. Que raconta-t-elle à ses duite ?

2. Qu'étaient devenusm 8e8 compagnons?

3. Où se trouva la petite Mos covite?

4. Que vit-elle soudainement au milieu de la forêt?

5. Que fit Fodora à l'approche de l'ours?

6. Comment échappa-t-elle à un si grand danger? 7. Que vit alors Fodora? 8. De quelle manière l'étranger regarda-t-il l'orpheline? 9. Qui était l'étranger?

10.

11.

Que fit alors le gentilhomme polonais?

Que fit pour l'enfant ? 12. Par qui Fedora fut-elle ac13. Fut-elle long-temps à se ré

cucillie ?

tablir?

bienfaiteurs?

15. Comment Polowski et sa femme traitèrent-ils notre hé roïne?

16. Apprit-on bientôt des nou velles de ses parents? 17. Prit-on soin de son éduca tion ?

18. Quel âge avait-elle ? 19. Que faisait-on chaque an née?

20. Que faisait Fordora dans une de ces réunions? 21. Qu'entendit-on alors? 22. Quel temps faisait-il dans ce moment ?

23. Que dit Polowaki en enten. dant le coup de feu? 21. Que fit-il alors? 25. Que portaicnt les domes tiques?

NOTES AND REFERENCES.-a. parvint, reached; from parvenir; | if necessary, keep a good dictionary beside you, and when you are L. part ii., p. 98.-b. de sorte que, so that. -c. from recueillir; at a loss, look for the required word in the dictionary, and there L. part ii, p. 102.-d. ce qui lui restait de forces, her remaining strength.e. from pouvoir; L. part ii., p. 100.--f. coup de feu, shot-g. L. S. 25, R. 2.-h. L. S. 81, R. 1.-i. L. S. 43, R. 6. -j. from accueillir; L. part ii., p. 76.-k. from apprendre; L part ii., p. 78.-. from mettre; L. part ii., p. 96.-m. L. S. 84, R. 5.

CORRESPONDENCE.

HINTS ON SELF-EDUCATION.
ADDRESSED CHIEFLY TO THE YOUNG.

you will see the true order of spelling. After a little practice in forming the letters into words, proceed to put the words into a at a time) from a book; and never forget to make use of good sentence; this is best done by copying some short sentences (one authors for imitation in this respect.

You may next write whole sentences, following each other so as to form a subject. Learn a verse of the Scriptures, or a passage from some author of good erudition and well-meaning principles, and having committed it to memory so as to retain an idea of the true drift and real meaning thereof, close the book, and write the sentence, verse, or passage entirely from recollection; having done so, open the book, and if on comparison you find your copy doth not in word and sense agree therewith, I would advise you to correct it, by making proper alterations on what you have wrongly written; nevertheless, though one word or more may be different WHEREAS I find that a former paper, the production of my pen, from the original, if the meaning be not materially affected, and it on "Self-Education briefly considered," inserted in the P. E., be written so that the real sense of both is the same, it need not be volume iii., page 59, was well pleasing to some of its readers, altered. By proceeding in this manner, you will acquire a capacity and I hope conveyed a lesson of encouragement to others, for useful thinking; and you will be able to form a composition I hereby aim at another endeavour to advise those who, in their for yourself, by drawing conclusions from your own stock of desire to obtain knowledge, may be left comparatively to them- mental ideas. selves, and who perhaps have not the leisure, the opportunity, or To understand the method of casting accounts, or, as we may the fortitude to apply at any time to a tutor. Besides, my advice say, making calculations in the science of numbers, called arithmay meet the eye of such as prefer a course of instruction by them-metic or cyphering, get a book on arithmetic, and therein you will selves, and it may encourage them to make progressive advances find rules for casting up sums and working the diverse rules of both in literature and science. arithmetic, together with useful directions for performing the said operations, and necessary tables for assistance; but arithmetic, as well as many other valuable departments of knowledge, is most fully explained in Cassell's P. E.

My ardent wish is to convince my young friends, as well as my more adult fellow-students, that the alphabet once learned, or at most with a few short words besides the letters, a person is in a fair way of attaining self-education. To the truth of this I am able to testify, as it was the case with myself; and that, too, under a grievous weight of affliction and consequent discouragement, being at the age of six years so debilitated in my limbs, the weakness extending from the spine downwards, that I have never since walked or even stood on my feet; and of course I am quite unable to earn a livelihood; but the main incentive to my studies was an ardent thirst for knowledge and innate desire for usefulness. Being thus circumstanced, dwelling in a lone habitation, and being deprived of those opportunities possessed by others of seeing the world, I was for some few years not conscious of the existence of any publications, except such books as from time to time I found to be in the rooms of my residence; consequently, I was quite a stranger to orthography. Accordingly, I learned to commit the words I read to memory, without knowing the true pronunciation of many of them; but afterwards, alighting on some spelling. books, wherein I observed the rules of accentuation explained and the exercises marked, I got over my first difficulty, and soon unlearned the sounds which I had already so imperfectly acquired. Now, I would advise any one who may be destitute of a teacher to take the like course of self-instruction, without being discouraged by the want of a teacher, or intimidated by difficulties, for they are not insurmountable; and if a difficulty occurs which he finds too perplexing for the mental efforts of self-cultivation, recourse should be had in that case to some educated person of good judgment and sound understanding, who (whether it relate to reading, writing, or the sciences) may be able to point out the true method, and us remove, or at least, by verbal explanation, lessen the difficulty. After a long period, I perused Johnson's Dictionary (small dition), and for a short time only; and in subsequent years, by the loan of the works of various lexicographers, and other kinds of literary and scientific works, I obtained a greater insight into language, and some skill in the pronunciation, the accentuation, and the meaning of words.

Thus may you, my young thinkers, lay the foundation, and thereon build the superstructure of your own accomplishments; remembering, as I said before, that so to do you need to have learned only the alphabet, or at any rate a few little words, which will enable you to make self-progress.

Begin writing by first learning to form all the letters of the alphabet, copying the characters from well-shaped letters fairly written, and if your model be the production of a masterly hand, it will greatly facilitate your attainments in the first use of the pen. Observe that at first you need a copy of the letters only, and this may be had from well-printed letters in the written character. While writing, endeavour to impress on your mind the image of a good letter, and you will soon be enabled to make a good imitation of the same; it is necessary, however, to hold your pen in the right position, and to keep it firm in the fingers.

When you can well form the characters, you will find it quite easy to join several letters together to form a word. Be sure also to spell every word right; and in order to assist your spelling,

See Vol. ii. P.E.

The first four rules of arithmetic are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, called the four fundamental rules; these must be first mastered, for by them all the other rules are performed. It is best to get the tables by heart, that while doing a sum, any required part of the necessary table may occur to the retentive memory.

You may succeed in the study of any foreign language without a master, if you first make yourself well acquainted with your native tongue, as explained in books of English grammar and of English literature. You may likewise make self-progress in geometry, navigation, and other useful accomplishments, by obtaining the proper books written on these subjects, and, by attentive perusal, making yourself master of their contents a little at a time; and above all, do not attempt to acquire too many kinds of information at one and the same period of life. In every difficulty do not lose sight of my now repeated recommendation, to solicit the kind assistance of some well-meaning, candid proficient in scholarship. Do not relax from your studies; let your application to the attainment of knowledge be earnest, diligent, persevering, and constant, and you will be sure to improve and succeed in your learning. Children stand most in need of a teacher; their mental capacities have (so to speak) only begun to develop themselves; thus some verbal director is the more required for them, in order to teach the young idea how to shoot. I have known some people strangely blame young boys for not making quicker progress; yet those same persons will tell me that they themselves have no time for application to lessons of instruction; but many hours which are sometimes extravagantly wasted, would go a very considerable way towards their own improvement, and their usefulness in forming the minds of their children.

My young friends, I anxiously advise you to guard against dissipation, drunkenness, and riot. By living soberly and tempe rately your minds will retain a greater clearness of ideas, and will be better adapted for engaging in mental exercises. Let it be your aim to steer through the voyage of life by the rules of the Sacred Scriptures, and in conclusion I bid you God speed.

West Road, near Bridport,
April 5th, 1854.

HENRY HALLett.

ECLECTIC INSTITUTE, 132, BROAD STREET.

SIR, I have read your POPULAR EDUCATOR, and induced a number of my friends to do the same; the result has been the formation of classes for the study of Music, French, Mathematics, &c. We have also lectures, discussions, &c., and a library. It you think well of this, and refer your readers in town to our Institute, we shall be glad to see them; and I doubt not they will derive from association advantages the same as, or similar to, those which we have ourselves obtained. Many young men cannot study conveniently at home, and some cannot afford to pay the expense of teachers; to such we give our invitation. If you will notice this in your EDUCATOR, you will oblige yours faithfully in the cause of enlightenment,

CHARLES C. CATTELL, Secretary.

ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS.

of

8. Barca Camden-exton His hint about earpants and Caro or Caso In the Map of Everymanders so-va Aqua ammonia, ope hartshorn alta, emeling wall or rolatile mit of harshor-4170 4 meter, V not tacommend sylloge of the kind se menfinns they are all Antartica; save found them so to our sad experience; #should began to seem in the ambjent. 70% inter The rules for determining the gender of nonna in German sra contained in p...31, vol. 4. of the P. 2.- ELAVE! nuril Are Fol. 4 197 ofen - G. WAIGRT Hall) should study the entstone of the A gebrile Problems as given in the PE. He may teach an alf yurid, I he changes, as may be an hy an example of this and in Protone in the "elf and Class Examiner in Eacit," price 21-11 2. Rea vol. 1. P.. pag. 2 and 2, near the bottom.

1. T. K. (Waltham Abbey, Hypolobite of toda prepared by dissolv, ing siphor in a concentrated hot anlation of siphite of soda anil the Jatiy is sudrated. The guld, enhjected to ar stallization, deposits the hypoulphite in isrre transparent er, stais. Warn heater, it first fuses in Its water of organizition, and by property regulating the hest, the whole of sea water may be driven off without derom nation; but if it be further hasted it is decomposed into a sulphate and anigh.de.

CONSTANT READER (WY, "Ine frat digit of a certain number exceeds the second by ; and when the number is divided by the sum of the digits, the quotient is 7; And the number."

Here, lets be the first digit,

Then the second digit,

And 2-4 la the sum of the digits:

Alan, 10x+x-1,. or 11 2-4 is the expression for the number.

Whance

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22-4

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J. II. FORSYTH (Lanarkshire): Be not disappointed; Hebrew will come in good time; the Greek must first be finished. JAMES ANDREWS (Birmingham): The references in the " Reading Lessons" are to "Cassell's Lessons in French," parts i. and ii.. price 28. each, or the two parts bound together, in one vol. cloth, 4s. 6d. the part is not mentioned, as L. p. 94, the meaning is, that at page 9 of "Cassell's Lessons in French," part i., the information will be found to which reference is made; L. p. 110, part ii., means page 110 of "Cassell's Lessons in French," part it.; and so on. Our correspondent will see that the references are to the "Lessons" as they appear in their collected form, and not as they appeared in the P. E. It would have been a toiisome and troublesome task to have adapted the references of the "Reading Lessons" to the Lessons in French" as they originally appeared in the P. E., extending as they do over nearly four volumes of that work.

JAQUES (Galashiels): We advise you to write to the Secretary of the Scottish Normal Schools for information; we cannot give you what you require.-1. T. O. (Oldham): We have not seen the laboratories, and so ot advise.-BETH (York): The explanation of Church, Chapel, and Cathedral is rather a ticklish question; ask the Archbishop. Reid our Lectures on Euclid.-J. 8. M. (Glasgow): The only cure for bashfulness is to rub your face with a brass candlestick !-G. S. RUTHERFORD (Marylebone): We presume that two or three days before the examination for matriculation commences at the University of London, will be sufficient time to enter your name in the register and pay the fee. We believe that Dr. Latham's books on the English language are the best adapted for preparing you to be examined on that language.-T. C. L. (Chatham) and JOHN DAVIES (Cornwall): For books on Musical Instruments and Music generally, we recommend Messrs. Cocks and Co., New Burlington-street. The early-closing movement has our best wishes; and, we had room, it should have our advocacy. Poisson's Treatise on Mechanics is much esteemed, and it touches on some points in Physical Astronomy. There are some smaller works, but we expect by and by to treat these subjects in An elementary manner ourselves.

H. C. (Sheen) is right as to the results which would follow on the obtaining of a new charter by the University of London, such as we have topoard: there would be no limit as to age upwards from sixteen years. don't know a book on the pronunciation of Musical Terms, but as they almost all from the Italian, our Lessons on that language will supply desideratum. Then as to Geographical Names, there is no harm in g them the pronunciation of English words, generally speaking. Borbeing a French wors, the vowels in the second syllable should, of rse, be pronounced like those in our English word Beaux; thus we say , whence. we should say Bordo: but in relation to the French capital, ve say both Taris and Pari, leaving out the s, in the latter pronunciation, MrP. SLIPSLOT (N. B.): Her remarks on the subject of the Roman notation are good, as far as they go the Professor of Grek under whom we stud.ed, the celebrated John Young, of the University of Glasgow, used to give us a complete account of this notation, which he began mvies.-W. same way as our correspondent; we shall keep the subject in view. W. MAPOWDER (Bristol): James Street, like Albert Street, the Parish of St. James, or St. James's Parish; one of Her Majesty's Government.-ARGO

as the French do,

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Din: It rains is an impersonal verb.-SPEED: A Greek pronounc Hetionary we mentioned in our notices before; pahern should be p sourced cha pre, where the ch as he rough sound of k; although name of the teller z, chu, has the letter attached to it, the s of the nam never to be sounded in a word where the letter occurs; and the same rem applicable to the names of all he letters its only the sound of the etter, cowel or consonant, in the name, that is to be pronounced in word.

W. Back Dalston: We have seen in the Kingsland and Dalston om bus, an advertisement relating to a Debaung Club in his vicinity: advise him to look out for it.-NACTS Tipperton): We can give him ledge a navigation is indispersable.-F. K. B (Stalybridge) wul ree advice on the subject of becoming a Middy: but we certainly think a kad the solutions inserted in answer to his question-KB12: Right.-G Capar): We cannot answer his question.

LITERARY NOTICES.

CASSELL'S EDUCATIONAL WORKS.
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ON PHYSICS, OR NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

No. XXXIII.

(Continued from page 81.)

EXPANSION OF SOLIDS.

Kinds and Co-efficients of Expansion.-Two kinds of expansion in solids were mentioned in a former lesson, viz., Linear Expansion, or that which takes place in the direction of one dimension only; and Cubic Expansion, or that which takes place in the volume or bulk. The co-efficient of linear expansion is the elongation or increase which a unit of the length of a body takes, when its temperature is raised by 10 Centigrade from the freezing point; or, it is the increase in its length for every degree between the freezing and the boiling points of water. The co-efficient of cubic expansion is the increase which a unit of the volume of a body takes under the same circumstances. These co-efficients vary in different bodies; but for the same body there exists a simple relation between the two co-efficients, viz., that the co-efficient of cubic expansion is three times the co-efficient of linear expansion, for all ordinary purposes. Thus by multiplying or dividing by the number 3, we can always find one of these co-efficients when the other

is known.

To demonstrate that the preceding rule is correct for gradual expansions, suppose that a cube whose side is unity, or 1, is at 0° Centigrade. If we represent the increase which the length of a side of the cube receives in rising from 0° to 1° Centigrade by 1, its length at the latter point will be 1+1, and the volume of the cube, which was 1 at the former point, will now be (1+7)3 or 1+31 + 38+33. Now, the increase in length 7, is always a very small fraction, as will be seen in a subsequent table; therefore, its square and its cube 3, are in general fractions so very small, that they have no effect on the final decimal of the numbers which represent the cubic expansion. These quanties are consequently neglected in practice, and the volume of the body at 1° becomes approximately 1 + 37.

order that it may not be hindered in its motion, it rests on two glass rollers.

The bar к H having been carefully measured at 0° Centigrade, and placed as shown in the cut, that is, in contact with the two rules, and the telescope being horizontal, we observe to what division it corresponds on a vertical scale A B placed at a great distance. We then replace the bar K н by a second bar longer by a given quantity, say one-tenth of an inch. The rule D being thus displaced and made to assume the position GC, imparts to the axis of the telescope a motion of rotation, and makes it take the oblique direction a B. By looking then through the telescope, we read off from the scale of deviation the quantity A B, which we shall suppose contains 180 divisions; this result being obtained, we remove the second bar and restore the first to its place; we then heat the furnace, having filled the trough with oil, a liquid which can be carried to a much higher temperature than water. In proportion as the heat increases the bar is lengthened, and the telescope is again made to take an oblique direction. The number of divisions which it indicates on the scale are then measured, say 120, and at the same time the temperature of the bath, by means of the thermometer, a temperature which we shall suppose to be 80° Centigrade. From these data, it is easy to deduce the elongation HC of the bar. For, since 180 divisions of the scale, from A to B, correspond to an elongation of the bar by one-tenth of an inch, a deviation of a single division is equivalent to an elongation of of an inch; consequently, a deviation of 120 divisions is equivalent to an elongation of 120 times T of an inch, that is or of an inch; or, as 180: 120 :: :: 16:15.

The length Hс being thus determined, we obtain the coefficient of linear expansion-that is, the elongation which corresponds to a single degree and to a single unit of length-by dividing the elongation thus obtained, by the temperature of the bath, and by the length of the bar at 0° Centigrade-or, by the product of these quantities. If in the experiment just mentioned we had taken, for example, a bar of lead of 29 inches, we should obtain the co-efficient of the linear expansion of lead, by dividing of an inch by the product of 293 and 80; thus, 1 0.000028571; and this would 15 x 29 x 80

[merged small][graphic]

The increase of the volume is therefore 37, that is, triple the linear expansion. Determination of the Co-efficients.-MM. Lavoisier and Laplace determined the co-efficients of the linear expansion of the metals by means of an apparatus represented in fig. 174. It is composed of a copper trough placed on a stove or furnace between four blocks of stone. The two which are on the right of the cut support a horizontal axis, at the extremity of which there is a telescope; and in the middle of this axis is fixed a glass rule, which turns with it as well as the telescope. In the other two blocks are fixed two iron cross-pieces which support a second glass rule. Lastly, in the trough, there is a water or oil bath, where the bar is placed, whose co-efficient of expansion is to be measured.

Fig. 175, is the representation of a section of the apparatus. G is the telescope, KH the bar, of which the two ends rest on the two glass rules F and D. The rule F being fixed, the bar can only be lengthened in the direction from K to H; and in

then be the linear expansion required. If this experiment be made on different metals, and repeated with various temperatures between 0° and 100° Centigrade, it will be found that the co-efficient of the linear expansion of the metal between these limits is sensibly constant; that is, for the same number of degrees, the length increases constantly by the same fraction of the length which it had at 0° Centigrade. But, according to the researches of MM. Dulong and Petit, the co-efficient becomes greater between 100 and 200° Centigrade, and increases between 200° and 300° Centigrade, and so on, to the point of fusion. Tempered steel is an exception; its co-efficient decreases when its temperature passes a certain limit. The following is a table of the expansions of the most useful metals, when heated from 0° to 100° Centigrade, or from 32° to 212° Fahrenheit; that is, of the co-efficients of their linear expansion for the distance between the freezing and the boiling points of water, according to MM. Dulong and Petit, Lavoisier, and others.

VOL. V.

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