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1 and δεικνύω, εις, and so on. especially δεικνύουσι (ν). So in the impf. : εδεικνύον, ύες, ύε(ν), and in the partic. commonly δεικνύων, ουσα, ον.

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Aorist 1. εστάθην ε-τε-θηκε εδοθην ε-δειχθην Future 1. στάθησομαι τεθησομαι 5 δοθησομαι δειχθήσομαι

1

so in the compounds : ενθῶμαι, τ, ῆται, etc.; αποθῶμαι, ῇ, ῆται, etc., εκδῶμαι, ᾧ, ὦται, etc., αποδῶμαι, φ, ὦται, etc. 3 and in the compounds: παραστηθι, παραστα, αποστηθι, αποστά 3 in the compounds: περιθες, ενθες; απόδος, εκδος; περίθετε, εκδότε. 4 in compounds: καταθου, αποθου, περίδου, αποδού, καταθεσθε, περίδοσθε; ενθεσθε, προέοσθε; but ενθοῦ, εἰςθοῦ; προδοῦ, ενδοῦ. ο ετεθην and τεθησομαι instead of εθεθην and θεθησομαι.

Determin

INFINITIVE MOOD (MODO INDEFINITO).
Present (Tempo presente).

LESSONS IN ITALIAN GRAMMAR.-No. XXIX.

By CHARLES TAUSENAU, M.D.,

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THE Italian language like the English has no special terminations to express the passive voice, which is formed, as in English, by means of the auxiliary verb essere, to be. It is on this account sufficient to know this verb and the past participle of the principal verb, since the combination of these two through all tenses forms the passive voice, e. g. amo, I love sono amato, I am loved; temo, I fear-sono temuto, I am feared; and thus through all the tenses of essere. The verb ve-ni-re, to come, may also be used instead of essere, with a passive verb, but only in its simple, and never in its compound tenses, e. g. vén-go a-má-to, I am loved, instead of sono amato; but it is not allowable to say só-no ve-nu-to a-má-to, instead of sono stato amato, I have been loved, etc. In addition to venire, occasionally the verbs-re-stá-re, to remain, be left; ri-ma-né-re, to remain; an-dd-re, to go; and stá-re, to standmay be used as a kind of auxiliaries to conjugate the simple tenses of the passive voice. They express, like venire, the continuance of some act or state of a person or thing with greater energy and elegance than essere. For this very reason they must be used sparingly. That the use of essere and venire is not arbitrary-essere denoting that some act has been done or accomplished, while venire generally expresses that some act has commenced without being completed-may be seen in these two phrases: il quá-dro è di-pin-to, the picture is painted, and il qua-dro viê-ne di-pin-to, the picture is being painted. Other phrases illustrating the use of these verbs in the passive voice, are-viên lo-da-to da tút-ti, he is praised by all; vén-ne ac-cu-sa ta, she was accused; ver-rán-no bia-si-ma-te, they will be blamed; qué-sta vó-ce va pó-sta pri-ma, this word is (ie. must be) put before; qué ste du-e có se ván-no u-ni-te, these two things are joined together (i.e. go together); ne re-stá-i, or ri-má-si, ma-ra-vi-gliá-to (for fu-i ma-ra-vi-gliả to), I was astonished at it; és-sa non ne re-stò (for fu) per-sud-sa, she was not convinced of it; ri-má-se af-flit-to a qué-ste pa-rá-le, at these words he was afflicted; i ca-vál-li stán-no (for só-no) attac-ca-ti al-la car-rôz-za, the horses are put to the coach; é-gli sta se-dú-to, he is seated (i. e. he sits).

The past participle, forming with the tenses and moods of essere the passive voice, must be considered as a real adjective agreeing with the passive subject or nominative in gender and number. This rule is invariable, even when the verbs andare, restare, rimanere, stare, and venire, are used in the place of essere, e. g. nói (uô-mi-ni) siá-mo stá-ti in-gan-na-ti, we (men) have been deceived; nổi (dôn-ne) siá-mo stá-te in ganná-te, we (women) have been deceived; tá-li cô-se non ván-no fat-te co-si, such things are not done in this way; le vir- tu che ven-go-no at-tri-bui-te a qué-ste pian-te, the qualities which are attributed to these plants; tút-ti ri-má-se-ro ma-ra-vi-gliá-ti, all were astonished.

There is a peculiar way of expressing the passive voice by means of the pronoun si, the use of which will be explained in the additional observations on the regular verbs.

To change active verbs into passive the case-sign da, or the preposition per, must be put before the subjects of the active voice on which some act depends, or which are its authors or causes, e. g. the following sentences:-Sci-pió-ne di-strus-se Car-ta-gi-ne, Scipio destroyed Carthage; An-ni-ba-le_scón-fis-se più vol-te i Ro-má-ni, Hannibal several times defeated the Romans; in-tro-dúr-re al-cú-no, to introduce somebody, when changed into passive will run as follows:-Car-tá-gi-ne fu di-strit-ta da Sci-pió-ne, Carthage was destroyed by Scipio; i Ro-má-ni fu-ron più vol te scon-fit-ti da An-ni-ba-le, the Romans were several times de-feated by Hannibal; és-se-re in-tro-dot-to da al-cú-no, or per al-cú-no, to be introduced by somebody. The following paradigm may serve as a model for the conjugation of passive verbs.

To be loved.

Essere amato,-a.
Perfect (Tempo passato).

To have been loved.
Essere stato amato

essere stata amata, etc.

Present Gerund (Gerundio presente).

Being loved (i. e. because, etc., I, etc., am loved).
Essendo (io) amato,—a.

Being loved (i.e. because, etc., we, etc., are loved).
Essendo (noi) amati,—e.

Past Gerund (Gerundio passato).

Having been loved (i. e. because, etc., I, etc., have been loved).
Essendo (io) stato amato, etc.

Having been loved (i. e, because, etc., we, etc., have been loved).
Essendo (noi) stati amati, etc.

Past Participle (Participio passato).*
Having been loved.

Stato amato, etc.

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The Italian language has no present and future participles in the passive
voice. Such words as-ve-ne-rán-do, venerable, to be revered; re-ve-rén-do,
reverend, venerable, and similar ones, which, in imitati
language, might be called future participles of
considered as adjectives. The learner m
no future participle in the active voi
thought to be such are, as it were, T

be considered as adjectives point

future; ven-tu-ro, future, next,

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is at the same time a passive object, and for this reason is expressed twice; 1st, by the personal pronouns io, I; tu, thou; egli or esso, he or it; ella or essa, she; noi, we; voi, you; eglino, elleno or essi, esse, they: 2nd, by the so-called conjunctive pronouns mi, myself, or to myself (i. e. a me); ti, thyself, or to thyself (i. e. a te); si, himself, herself, itself, or to himself, etc. (i. e. a se); ci, ourselves, or to ourselves (i. e. a noi); vi, yourselves, or to yourselves (i. e. a voi); si, themselves, or to themselves (i. e. a se). These are consequently in the accusative, and sometimes in the dative case, must be placed before the verb, and will be fully explained hereafter, e. g. io mi di-fen-do, I defend myself; tu ti di-fên-di, thou defendest thyself; egli (or ella) si difen-de, he (or she) defends himself (or herself); noi ci di-fen-diá-mo, we defend ourselves; voi vi difen-dé-te, you defend yourselves; essi or esse si di-fen-do-no, they defend themselves, etc. The personal pronouns may, in this case, as well as in the conjugation of all Italian verbs, be omitted; and it is sufficient to say-mi difendo, ti difendi, si difende, ci difendiamo, vi difendete, si difendono, and so on through all tenses and moods. When the pronouns mi, ti, ci, vi, and si come before a verb beginning with a vowel, their final vowel i may be omitted and an apostrophe put in its place e. g. m' av-vég-go (for mi aveggo), I perceive, or remark; t' accor-gi (for ti accorgi), thou perceivest; s' im-pa-dro-ni-sce (for si impadronisce), he seizes upon or makes himself master of. In the infinitive mood of these verbs the pronoun si must be removed to the end as a suffix, e. g. van-tár-si, to boast; ralle-grár-si, to be delighted; af-fli-ger-si, to grieve (which is equivalent to rallegrare, affligere, etc., se me-dé-si-mo).

Some verbs are reflectives in the strictest sense of the word and can never be used without the above-mentioned reciprocal pronouns, e. g. ac-côr-ger-si, to perceive, or be sensible of; contri-star-si, to be afflicted, or cast down; in-na-mo-rár-si, to fall in love; in-ge-gnár-si, to endeavour, to task all one's powers of ingenuity and application; im-pa-dro-nir-si, im-pos-ses-sár-si, to seize upon, or make one's self master of; la-gnár-si, to complain; ma-ra-vi-gliár-si, to wonder; ral-le-grár-si, to be delighted; ver-go-gnár-si, to be ashamed, etc. It must, however, immediately appear that every verb may assume the reflective form, having the pronoun si added to its infinitive, whenever the action which the verb implies returns back to the subject, e. g. ab-ban-do-ná-re, to abandon, or give up, and a-ban-do-nár-si, to give one's self up, or over; ab-bas-sá-re, to abase, lower, and ab-bas-sár-si, to fall off, sink, to cringe; do-lé-re, to suffer, feel pain, and do-lér-si, to grieve, complain, pity; al-zá-re, to raise, and al-zár-si, to rise, get up, etc.

The genius of the Italian language generally requires the reflective verbs to be considered as passive, thus giving rather an illogical predominance to the passive state of the subject reacting on itself, while the unmistakable active nature of a reflective verb, which distinctly names the passive object, is dropped. For this reason the great majority of these verbs, i. e. the reflective verbs governing the accusative case of the person in their compound tenses must be conjugated with essere instead of avere, and their participle must agree in number and gender with this accusative, preceding the verb, e. g.

ê-ra-no lun-ga-men-té a-md-1i, they had been in love a long while; egli aveva fatto coronare (as quoted above), etc. These are, however, licences of celebrated writers, who, from caprice or want of attention, have allowed themselves perhaps by provincial phraseology to be seduced into these infractions of the rule and are not to be imitated.

The reflective verbs governing the dative case of the person and the accusative case of the thing in their compound tenses may be conjugated either with essere or avere, and when the accusative case of the thing precedes them, their participle must agree with it; but it remains unchanged when the accusative follows, e. g. él-la si è (or si ha) strac-cid-to il ví-so, she has lacerated her (i. e. to herself the) face; é-gli-no si só-no (or si han-no) fat-to o-nó-re, they have been an honour (i. e. done honour) to themselves; la vi-ta che vi sie-te (or vi a-vé-te) ré-sa a-md-ra, the life which you have embittered (i. e. rendered bitter) to yourselves; mi só-no (or mi hò) pó-sto in cuô-re, I have resolved (i. e. I have fixed to myself in the mind).

The conjunctive pronouns mi, ti, ci, vi, si, in ordinary or familiar language, precede the reflective verb, as will appear from the paradigm of its conjugation. The only exceptions are the imperative and infinitive moods, the gerunds and participles, where they are added as suffixes to the verbs. But in a more measured or elegant style, and especially in poetry, those pronouns may be added as suffixes to all the tenses where they generally precede the verb, unless ambiguity or harsh sound should forbid it, and it is allowable, e. g. to say-pênto-mi for mi pên-to, I repent; pên-te-si for si pên-te, he or she repents; pen-ti-va-si for si pen-ti-va, he repented; pen-ti-ron-si for si pen-ti-ro-no, they repented, etc. But with regard to these suffixes, the following rules must be adhered to:

1. If the verb to which a conjunctive pronoun is suffixed is an abbreviated word (vó-ce trón-ca) with the accent on its last syllable, the initial consonant of the pronoun must be doubled, e. g. for si pen-ti, he repented; mi pen-ti-rò, I shall repent; and si pen-ti-rd, he will repent; it will be indispensable to say-pentis-si, pen-ti-róm-mi, and pen-ti-rás-si; for si tur-bò, he was disconcerted (from turbarsi); se ne an-dò, he went away (from andarsene)-tur-bôs-si, an-dôs-se-ne, etc.

2. In compound tenses the conjunctive pronouns must be suffixed to the auxiliary verb, e. g. i-o mi só-no pen-ti-to, or só-no-mi pen-ti-to, I have repented; é-gli si sa-rà pen-tí-to, or sa-ras-si pen-ti-to, he will have repented; si sa-réb-be pen-ti-to, or sa-réb-be-si pen-ti-to, he would have repented; s' im-má-gina, or im-má-gi-na-si, he imagines; i-o me lo ê-ra im-ma-gi-náto, or ê-ra-me-lo im-ma-gi-nd-to, I had imagined (or figured it to myself), etc.

3. When the infinite mood of a reflective verb is governed by another verb, the conjunctive pronoun may be suffixed to the infinitive mood, or it may be put before or suffixed to the verb that governs it, and it is as correct to say, e. g. déb-bo pentir-mi, as mi deb bo pen-ti-re, or as déb-bo-mi pen-ti-re, I must repent. But the most ordinary, and perhaps the best, arrangement of these phrases is the first, for here the pronoun is suffixed to that verb to which it naturally belongs.

4. When more than one pronoun is in connexion with a reflective verb, either both are placed before it, or both may be suffixed to it. By anticipation it must be stated here that the conjunctive pronouns mi, ti, ci, vi, and si, before the words lo, it; la, her; li, them (m.); le, them (f.); and ne, of it, for it, with it, etc., are changed into me, te, ce, ve, and se, e. g. pen-tir-se-ne, to repent it, or to be sorry for it, is conjugated i-o me ne pên-to, or pên-to-me-ne, tu te ne pên-ti, or pen-ti-te-ne, i-gli se ne pên-te, or pên-te-se-ne, noi ce ne pen-tid-mo, or pen-tiámo-ce-ne, voi ve ne pen-ti-te, or pen-lí-te-ve-ne, és-si se ne pên- tono, or pên-to-no-se-ne, I repent it, or I am sorry for it, etc.; pen-ti-to-se-ne, having repented it, or been sorry for it; pentén-do-se ne, repenting it, or being sorry for it, etc.

Pentirsi, to repent.

The conjugation of this verb is an example of the combination of the reciprocal or conjunctive pronouns mi, ti ci, vi, and si, with a verb.

INFINITIVE MOOD (MODO INDEfinito).* Present (Tempo presente).

To repent. Pen-tír-si.

Perfect (Tempo passato).

To have repented. Es-ser-si pen-tí-to. Future (Tempo futuro). To be about to repent. És-se-re per pen-tír-si.

INDICATIVE MOOD
Present (Tempo presente).

I repent.
Io mi pên-to
Tu ti pén-ti
Egli, ella si pên-te
Noi ci pen-tid-mo †
Voi vi pen-ti-te

Eglino, elleno si pên-to-no

Imperfect (Tempo presente di

passato).

I repented.
Io mi pen-ti-va
Tu ti pen-ti-vi

Egli, ella si pen-ti-va
Noi ci pen-ti-vá-mo
Voi vi pen-ti-vá-te

Eglino, elleno si pen-ti-ra-no

Present Participle (Participio

presente).

Repenting. Pen-tên-te-si

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Having repented.
Es-sin-do-si pen-ti-to.

Future Gerund (Gerundio fù-
turo).

Being about to repent.
Es-sên-do per pen-tir-si.

(MODO AFFERMativo).

Indeterminate Preterite (Tem-
po passato remoto).
I repented.

Io mi pen-ti-i
Tu ti pen-ti-sti
Eqli, ella si pen-ti
Noi ci pen-tim-mo
Voi vi pen-ti-ste
Eglino, elleno si pen-tí-ro-no
Determinate Preterite (Tempo

passato prossimo.
I have repented.

lo mi só-no

Tu ti sê-i

Egli, ella si è

Noi ci siá-mo

Voi vi sie-te

Eyling, elleno si só-no

pen-li

to,- a

pen-titi,-e

Observe, the pronoun si only refers to the third person singular or plural, e. g. in the sentence-in-ge-gnán-do-si é gli in mol-te ma-nie re di ri-a cqui-stá-re an-có-ra la tú a a-mi cí zia, as he endeavoured in many ways to regain again thy friendship, the gerund ingegnandosi evidently refers to the pronoun egli of the third person singular; while in the sen tence-al le don ne pia cque di par-tir-si dál-la vil-la, it pleased the ladies to go away from the villa, the infinitive diparti si refers to donne, i e. to the third person plural. Here, as well as through the whole of the conju gation of a reflective verb, the first person requires, in the singular, mi, and in the plural, ci; while the second person, in the singular, requires ti, and (from le-vár-si, to rise, get up), basing then got up on my feet. I said. in the plural, vi, e. g. I'-o al-ló-ra, pre-sta-men-te le-vá-to-mi in piè, dís-si dobbiamo fa-ti-car-ci co-lon-tie-ri pel bé-ne de no siri si-mi-li (from ja-ti. cár-si, to fatigue one's self), we must willingly make every effort for the good of our fellow creatures: tu e-ri ben de si de ró-so di ri-con-ci-liár-ti con

l'a-mi-co (from ri-con-ci-liár si, to be reconciled), thou wert very des rous to be reconciled to thy friend; roi do-vré-te pen-tir-vi (from pen-tir-si, to repent), you will be obliged to repent. A complete conjugation, e. g. of tas present and past gerunds, being in all persons of frequent use, runs as Present Gerund (Gerundio presente).

follows:

As I repent,

as thou repentest, etc.

Pen tén-do-mi

pen tén-do-ti
pen-len-do-si
pen-tén-do-ci
pen-tên do ti

pen-tén do-si.

Past Gerund (Gerundio passato).

As I have repented,
as thou hast repented, etc.
Es-sén do mi

es-sen-do-ti pen-ti-to,-a
es-sen-du si S

es-sen-do ci

es-sen-do vi pen-ti-ti,—e

Epen-ti-ti,-e

es-sén-do-si

Not a few Italians in the first persons plural of reflective verbs are, against all rule end grammar, in the practice of saying-noi si pentiered, in the place of noi ci peniano; noi si scor-dóm-mo, we forgot, ia the place noi si ri cor da vá mo, we remembered, in

of noi ci scordammo, etc.

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