quence many words may spring from one root. I must now Only a few primitive nouns are formed with a suffix, e.g., enter a little into particulars, and show you the laws by which | puλaž, a watchman; nominal and verbal stem, øvλar (pvλaoow, these formations take place. I guard); of (stem on), a voice; verbal stem επ, as seen in EELV, Words are divided into two chief classes, the simple and the compound. Simple words are those which consist of only one element; compound words consist of two simple words, or more than two. By a simple element I mean a root or number of letters, which combine to make sense, or at least involve an idea in its rudimental state. The simple element is the same as the stem, and in order to get to it you must cut off the formative letters, that is, the letters which form the cases of the nouns, and the persons, etc., of the verbs. For instance, in λoy-o-s, a word, you have Xoy for the stem or simple element after droppings the nominative case, and o the nominal vowel. So in the verb Aey-w, I speak, when you take away the person-ending w, you have λɛy, the verbal root corresponding with the nominal root λογ. Consonantal stems before consonantal suffixes undergo the necessary euphonic changes; thus, before pa becomes μ, as γραφ-, γραμ-μα ; so λέξις, a word, from λεγ-; δικαστης, a judge, from dikad (dikal). Vowel stems are wont to lengthen the vowel, and sometimes introduce a before several suffixes; thus, moinua, from Tole (compare πE-Tоin-μai), and oɛi-o-pos (compare oε-σεɩ-o-μai, I have been shaken), a shaking, as of an earthquake. In many words the stem undergoes a change of vowel, a short vowel being changed into its corresponding long form, or a conversion taking place; thus, from the stem Aan- we have An@n, forgetfulness (compare the verbal λɛλŋ0a); from the stem πεμπ- we have πομπη, a procession (compare πεπομφα); and from the stem Air- we have λon-o-g, left, remaining (compare λe-λoπ-α). Substantives are formed by various suffixes, of which the following are the most important : : Suffixes which form Substantives. The DOER, or the person concerned with some act, is denoted Simple words may be divided into two classes, the primitive and the derivative. Primitive words are those which are found from a stem by the affixing of a nominal or a verbal termination. Thus Aoyog is a primitive, it being formed by the addition of or to λογ. Also λεγω is a primitive, inasmuch as you form it by adding w to Xey. It is another question which of these two elements, namely, Aɛy and Xoy, is the original form. That question would open the general ques- by one of these suffixes:tion as to whether, in the genesis or birth of language, nouns preceded verbs or verbs preceded nouns. A question of such a nature belongs rather to philology or the science of language than to Greek grammar, and may consequently be passed by here, the rather as for its satisfactory consideration much knowledge and a fine logical sense are requisite. For our purposes both ey and Xoy may be considered stems, the former a verbal, the latter a nominal stem or primitive. The terminations which are appended to the stem have in themselves no signification in their actual form, whatever they may have meant originally, and so only serve the purpose of denoting to what class of words, whether nouns or verbs, etc., a stem in a particular form belongs, and of marking the modifications which the word undergoes in relation to person or to time, to manner or to action. The termination is either a syllable, as in the case of verbs w and ut, and of nouns n and og; or simply a consonant which unites with the stem-vowel to form a syllable, as ç and v. Derivation words are such as are derived or formed from primitive words. Thus, from apx in apx-n, beginning, and apx-w, I begin, comes apx-atos, an adjective formed by suffixing αιος to the stem ; αρχαιος accordingly signifies that which goes back to the beginning, ancient. Nouns are generally formed from either verbal or nominal stems by means of a termination. This termination may be termed a suffix, or a formative. Thus, by means of the suffix o is λογ-o-s formed from the verbal stem λεγ, and αρχαιο-ς is formed from apxa (nominative apx"), by the addition of the suffix 10. 1. ɛu, nominative, ev-ç. Examples in Primitive Words. γραφευς, a writer, from γραφ- present γραφω Example in a Derivative Word. Topoμ-εv-ç, a ferryman, тор¤μо- пом. яор0μоs (πεрã, beyond) 2. тηp nomin. τng τειρα nomin. τειρα masculine Tρia 99 τρια feminine τριδ τιδ τορ 99 τωρ 29 τρις τις Examples in Primitive Words. Stem and nomin. ow-τng, deliverer ῥη-τορ κριτα from σω-ζω με as in ερῷ κρι "" κρίνω ποιε "9 ποιεί σω τειρα, female оin-тρia, a poetess αυλή της, ο futcplayer ; αυλε Ton-ra Sufixes serve the end of defining the sense of the root, and Stem πολί-τα nomin, πολι-της, a citizen; πολι as in πολις so of showing the different relations under which the fundamental idea appears. Let us take as an example row (πolû), 1 make. By cutting off the person-ending I obtain as the stem TOLE. From TOLE, with the lengthening of the & into n, and the introduction of the suffix or formative, I make these words 27 as in πειθομαι "" μιμε "" μιμείμαι 99 σκεπ TIS-TI-S, confiding, trust, faith from σκέπτομαι πραγ 79 πράσσω γεν 99 γιγνομαι δοκιμαδ, δοκιμάζω. 2. μο nominative μοις. σπα-σ-μος, cramp, spasm from σπα as in σπαω δε-σ-μο-ς, chain οδυρμούς, wailing δε δεω The RESULT of action is denoted by 1, ματ, μα, neuter, 1. 1o, nominat. tov neuter, as nom. παῖς " κῆπος πραγμ as in πρασσι With πραγμα compare το πεπραγμένον, that which has been done (Latin, factum); with ῥημα compare τo ειρημένον, that which has been said (Latin, dictum); with τμημα compare το τετμημένον, that which has been cut (Latin, sectum). 2. ες nominative os, neuter. λαχ, as in λαγχανω Stem λαχες Nomin, λαχος, a lot, from εθες εθος, custom εθ τικές τέκος, a child παιδ-ιο-ν, a little child κηπ-ιον, a little garden Besides the form to, there are these, namely, ιδιο (nom. ιδιον), αριο (nom. αριον), υδριο (nom. υδριον), as οικίδιον, α little house (οίκος), παιδάριον, a little child (παῖς); μελυτριον, a ditty (μέλος, a song, our melody). 2. Mas. ισκο, fem, ισκα, nom. ισκο-ς, ισκή, Ε. 8. stem νεανια nom. νεανιας Patronymics, or nouns denoting descent from a father (πατήρ), that is, an ancestor, are formed mostly by the suffix ca (nom. The same suffix in derived words denotes the peculiarδης) for the masculine, and merely 6 (nom. c) for the feminine. quality. This suffix is added immediately to the stem in a, as 403 Suffixes forming Adjectives. 1. 10, nom, 10-6, Αλεξανδρος ὁ Φιλιππου Φωκιωνε μονῳ, φασι, τῳ Αθηναίων στρατηγῷ γραφων προςετίθει το χαίρειν. Αξιουντος δε του Αντιπάτρου ποιῆσαι τι των μη δικαίων αυτον, Ου δυνασαι, expresses in the most general way the idea involved in the ειπεν, Αντιπατρε, και φιλῳ Φωκιωνι χρῆσθαι και κολακι. Μετά noun from which the adjective comes, as δε την Αντιπάτρου τελευτην δημοκρατίας Αθηναίοις γενόμενης κατεγνώσθη θανατος του Φωκιωνος εν εκκλησία και των φίλων οἱ μεν ουν αλλοι κλαίοντες ηγοντο, τῳ δε Φωκιωνι σιωπῇ βαδι εσπεριος, belonging to the evening, from the noun έσπερα (Lat. ζοντι των εχθρών τις ενέπτυσεν απάντησας εις το πρόσωπον. vesper), evening, Ο δε προς τους αρχοντας αποβλέψας, Ου παύσει τις, είπε, With the vowel of a vowel-stem the, sometimes grows into a τοῦτον ασχημονούντα ; Ηδη δε τῆς κυλικὸς αὐτῷ προςφερομένης, diphthong; as αγορα, α market place αιδο (nom, αιδως), modesty αγορα-ιο-ς (αγοραῖος) ερωτηθείς, ει τι λέγει προς τον υίον, Εγω σοι, ειπεν, εντελλομαι και παρακαλῶ μηδεν Αθηναιοις μνησικακειν. Των δε μελλοντων συναποθνησκειν ἑνος οδυρονενου και αγανακτοῦντος, θυε αγαπᾷς, ειπεν, ὦ Θούδιππε, μετά Φωκίωνος αποθανούμενος, VOCABULARY AND REMARKS. By appending to you also form adjectives from adjectives as may we not rather say that the enemy have fallen on us?" stems; ελευθερ-ιο-ς, liberal from ελευθερ (ελευθερ-ο-ς, free) ; also gentile adjectives from names of places thus from Μιλητ-o-s comes Μιλησ-ιο-ς (instead of Μιλησιο-ς). Αθηναι Αθηνα-ΐο-ς 2. ro, nom. καις, Εμπίπτω, I fall on; “ We have fallen on the enemy; why Fallen on here denotes met with, implying a subject of congratulation. Δωρεαν, as a gift from a noun not in use δωρεα, ας, ή, a gift). Καγαθον, that is, και αγαθον, honourable and good. Και δουκεῖν και, etc., both to appear and to be so, that is, honourable and good. Ο Φιλιππου, the noun υἱος is understood, Alexander, the son which is generally appended to the stem by means of, and in of Philip. words derived from verbal stems, signifies fitness: from αρχ (αρχω) comes αρχαι-κούς, fit for governing. αισθητ (αισθανομαι) ασθητικος, susceptible of feeling πρακτι-κος, φractical. From nouns as stems are formed adjectives which denote the peculiar quality of the noun, as βασιλι-κο-ς, kingly (βασιλευς, a king) ιατρ-ι-κος (ιατρος, α physician). θηλυ-κους (θήλυ, female), womanly, feminine. 3. to nom. ινο-ς. 4. εo nom. εο-ς, ους (Lat. eu-s) indicate the stuff or substance of which a thing is made, as λιθ-ινο-ς, stony from λιθο-ς, a stone ξυλινο-ς, wooden ξυλο-ν, wood Κυλιξ, κύλικος, ή, a bowl, the bowl of poison. Το χαίρειν, the customary salutation, the complimentary words, this comes greeting, equivalent to our "Dear sir," or "Your respectful servant.' Αυτον, is the accusative case before ποιῆσαι, which depends οι αξιούντος. Και φιλφ, etc., you cannot use (have) Phocion as at once a |friend and a flatterer. Πελοπίδας, ὁ συστρατηγος Επαμεινονδου, της γυναικός επι μάχην εξιόντος αυτου, δεομένης σωζειν εαυτον. Αλλοις, εφη, δειν τούτο παραινεῖν, αρχοντι δε και στρατηγῳ σωζειν τους πολίτας. Ειπόντος δε τίνος των στρατιωτων, Εμπεπτωκαμεν εις τους πολεμίους, Τί μᾶλλον, είπεν, η εις ήμας εκείνοι ; Αλεξανδρου του βασιλεως έκατον ταλαντα δωρεαν Φωκιωνι τῳ Αθηναίῳ πεμψαντος, ηρώτησε τους κομίζοντας, τί δήποτε πολλων οντων Αθηναίων, αὐτῷ μονῳ ταῦτα δίδωσιν Αλέξανδρος επόντων δε εκείνων ὡς μονον αυτόν ἡγεῖται καλόν καγαθον | είναι, Ουκούν, έφη, εασατω με και δοκεῖν και εἶναι τοιοῦτον, Καταγιγνώσκω, I condemn; sentence of death was pronounced against (with the gen.) Phocion and his friends. Εμπτυω, I spit on; one of his (Phocion's) enemies, meeting him, spat in his face. Ασχημονεῖν, to be ill-mannerly, to behave ill, unbecomingly; will no one cause that person to cease being ill-mannerly? Ουκ αγαπᾷς, etc., art thou not content, seeing that thou suferest death with Phocion! What is the derivation of συστρατηγος ? εξιόντος ? παραινεῖν κατεγνωσθη: συναποθνησκειν: μνησικακειν Give the parts (also go through them) of the following verbs :ειπε(ν); ηρώτησε; εασατω; φασι; πεμψαντος; προς επιθεί; δυνασαι; ήγοντο, ενεπτυσεν; εμπεπτωκαμεν, Explain the augment in these forms :-ενέπτυσε(ν); προς επιθεί; κατεγνωσθη. LESSONS IN ITALIAN GRAMMAR.-No. XXXIII. IRREGULAR VERES. The Irregular Verbs are those which deviate in some tenses fure, stare, and their derivatives. IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION, irregular verbs, feeling confident that the student is thoroughly acquainted [As all Italian verbs may be generally conjugated with or without per sonal pronouns, we now think proper to omit thein in the conjugation of the tses, which the reader now will be easily able to form and conjugate for with them. For a similar reason we omit the conjugation of the compound himself.] |