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cesas & quienes vmd. vió, me escribieron muchas cartas. Las in which city the streets are pleasant and the houses handcucharas que María tiene, y las cuales el Frances halló, son some. mias. El caballo que Juan vió, y del cual Pedro habló, es | robusto y fuerte. Las calles cuyas casas son hermosas, son agradables.

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INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

The interrogative pronouns are the same as the relative, except that cual is used without being preceded by the article. They are not used in precisely the same manner; for in interrogations, quien always means, who; cual, which; que, what; cuyo, whose; as,

¿Quién tiene hambre ? † who is hungry?
¿Quiénes tienen sed? who are thirsty?

El criado cuyo nombre es Pedro, vino á mi casa. Las casas cuyos cuartos son espaciosos, son muy agradables. Juan dió el libro á una muger cuyo nombre es María. El pintor y el impresor vinieron a Madrid, en cuya ciudad el pintor halló un tesoro. El hombre que tiene prudéncia, es muy sábio. El hombre que tiene dinero, tiene cuidado. La muger que es sobérbia é ignorante, es desgraciada. Los hombres que tienen dinero, tienen cuidados. Lo que es imposible para los hombres, es posible para Dios. Lo que es nuevo, no es viejo. El pintor tiene el tesoro que el médico halló en la calle. Pedro ama lo que es bueno. Ella sabe que hacer. El hombre no sabe que hacer. Pedro sabe lo que es bueno. La Francesa no sabe que decir. Las hijas del juez no saben que comprar. El pintor no sabe que libro leer. Los Alemanes no saben cual sombrero tomar. Mi hermana no sabe cuales libros leer. the same preposition; as,

¿Cual de los hijos está alli? which of the sons is there? ¿Qué dijo el médico ? what said the doctor? ¿Qué sombrero tiene rmd.? what hat have you? ¿Cuyos libros son estos? whose books are these? ¿De quién son estos libros? whose (or of whom) are these books? When the interrogative pronoun is governed by a preposi tion, the answer to the question must always be preceded by

La que es sobérbia, no es amable. Los que aman la verdad,¿De quién son aquellos niños? De Juan. Whose are those chil son sabios. El que tiene sabiduría, tiene prudéncia. Mi her

dren John's.

For the woman.

When What is used in ejaculatory interrogations, as, What a fine day! what a man! the indefinite article is omitted in Spanish; as,

mano tiene un tesoro, que su criado halló en la ciudad. El¿Para quién lo hizo? Para la muger. For whom did-he-do it? que tiene prudéncia, es sábio. Los que nos dieron los libros, son amigos nuestros. La que no es agradable, es desgraciada. La ciudad en que Juan halló el tesoro, es grande y hermosa. La muger á quien María habló, es muy amable. El que tiene oro, tiene mucho cuidado. El Aleman dió dos libros al hombre á quien Juan vió. El médico dió tres libros á la Francesa en quien mi madre tiene mucha confianza. El pintor fué á Madrid, en cuya ciudad las calles son agradables y las casas hermosas. Las criadas no saben que hacer.

saw.

ENGLISH-SPANISH.

¡Qué hermosa mañana! What a fine morning!
¡Qué desgracia! What a disgrace!

¡Qué modrego! What a blockhead!

In Spanish, all that is necessary to form an interrogative sentence, is to place the interrogation mark before (inverted) and after the sentence. Thus, Juan tiene dinero, means, John has money; and Juan tiene dinero? means, Has John money? It is, however, common (though not necessary) in Spanish, to place the nominative after the verb in interrogations; as, Tiene Pedro dinero? ¿tienen los pintores libros ? Has Peter money? have the painters books?

The auxiliary verb Do is unknown in Spanish (as also in all the languages of Europe except the English), and all such expressions as-Does John speak?-do they love?-how much do you ask a week?-did it not snow during my absence?did they see her?-Peter did speak,-must be rendered in Spanish by the simple form of the verb; as, ¿Habla Juan? —

The physician is (he) who wrote the letter which you (rmd.) The judge is (he) who saw the letters which you (emd.) wrote. The Spanish-women are (they) who gave the books to Peter. The man to whom John gave the hats is very rich and ignorant. The women to whom the judge wrote the letters are very poor and ignorant. The women for whom Mary wrote the letters are very amiable and beautiful. The physician gave the spoons to an English painter', in whom the judge has much confidence. The French-woman whom Peter loves is very beautiful. The German-woman whom you (emd.) saw wrote me many letters. The spoons which Mary has, and which the French-woman found, are mine. The male-servant who came with me is strong and robust. The horse which John saw, and of which (del cual) Peter spoke, is strong. The streets whose houses are beautiful are agree-Peter spoke.

able.

aman ellos?—¿cuánto pide vd. por semana?—¿ no nevó durante mi ausencia ? la vieron ellos?-Pedro habló; that is,-speaks John-love they?-how much ask you per week?-snowed it not during my absence?-her saw they? (or, saw they her?)

VOCABULARY.

Azúcar, sugar.
Manteca, butter.
Espécie (fem.), species, sort.
Señor, sir,
St, yes.
Toma, (he) takes.
Dice, (he) says.
Habla, (he) speaks.
Quiere, (he) wishes,

wants.

Pan, bread.
A'gua, water.
Boton, button,

Señora, madam, lady.
No, no.

Dicen, (they) say.
Dijo, (he) said.

Entiende, (he) understands.

(he) Quieren, (they) wish, (they)

want.

MODEL SENTENCES.

The man whose name is John came to my house. The woman whose name is Mary gave me three books. The houses whose rooms are spacious are very pleasant. John gave three silver spoons to a woman whose naine is Mary. The painter and the printer came to Madrid, in which city the painter found a treasure. The man who is prudent is wise. The woman who is proud and ignorant is unhappy. The men who have money have cares. That which is possible for Peter is possible for John. What is possible for the painter is not possible for the carpenter. The Frenchman has the treasure that the physician found in the street of the city. Peter loves what is good. Mary knows what is good. The German knows what to-do. The painter knows not what to-do. The French-woman knows not what to-say. The physician's sister knows not what to-buy. The male-servants know not & Quién tiene azúcar? who has what to-say. My father knows not what book to-read, My brothers know not which books to-buy. The Germans know¿Quién habla Ingles? not which hat to-take. She knows not what spoon to-take. He that has much gold has much care. She that is proud is not amiable. They who love the truth are wise. He who has wisdom has prudence. He who has prudence is wise. My father has a treasure which his male-servant found in the city. They who gave us the books are friends (of) ours. She who is not agreeable is unfortunate. Those who are ignorant and impious are unhappy. The city in which Peter found the books is large and beautiful. The woman to whom ry spoke is very agreeable. The painter went to Madrid,

sugar.

Qué libro tiene vm.? what book have you? who¿De quien es el tesoro ? whose is the treasure?

speaks English.
Cual de los dos pintores tiene

dinero which of the two
painters has money?
¿Qué dijo la hija del juez? what

said the judge's daughter.

Quiere su hijo pan señor? does

your son want bread, sir? No, señor, mi hijo tiene pan, no, sir, my son has bread.

exclamations, the interrogation and exclamation marks are placed at the • Quién and qué, when interrogative, generally have the accent marked. +Literally this is "Who has hunger?" In Spanish, in interrogations and beginning (inverted) as well as at the end of the phrase or sentence.

SPANISH-ENGLISH.

German take water? Who understands what you (plur.) say?
What does the painter's father say? Who has butter?
Whose (of whom) are the books? Which of the two Spaniards
speaks English? To whom do you speak?

¿Quién es bueno? ¿Quiénes son ricos? De quién son las ca-as? Cuyos libros tiene vmd. Cual de los dos hijos del juez halló un tesoro ? Qué dijo vmd.? Qué sombrero Have you money? Have the Frenchmen many friends? tiene vmd.? Qué tesoros halló Pedro? ¿Qué quiere vm.? Have you many books? Has the book leaves of gold? Are ¿Qué lengua habia el general? ¿Para quién escribió María the women hungry? Are you (a) Spaniard? (is your-worship las cartas? Para la muger. ¿A quiénes dió Juan los libros Spanish?) Are you (a) Frenchman? Are you (a) German? españoles? A lcs Alemanes. ¡Qué hombre es vm.! ¡Qué Are the houses new? Are not his friends rich? Are not his hermosa muger! Quién quiere pan? ¿Quién quiere azúcar? | brothers as rich as he? Are (son) not my brothers richer ¿Quién habla Español? ¿Quién entiende el Ingles? ¿Quién than the judge's sons? Did the painter's son write letters ama la verdad? Quién habla el Frances? ¿Quién entiende to the French-woman? Is the woman amiable? Are the lo que Juan dice? ¿Qué espécie de botones quiere vm.? Spaniards prouder than the English? Did the painter ¿Qué espécie de azúcar tiene Pedro? ¿Qué quieren vms.? find (found the painter) two books in the road? Are the ¿Qué libros quieren los pintores? Qué dicen los jueces? Germans hungry? Yes, sir, the Germans are hungry? Are Toma vini. água? ¿Qué dijo el hermano del médico? the Spanish-women thirsty? No, madam, the Spanish-women Señora, quiere vmd. manteca? Habla su hijo Español, are not thirsty. Is John (a) carpenter? Yes, sir, John is (a) señor? Si, señor, mi hijo habla Español. Entiende su hija carpenter. de vmd. el Ingles, señora? No, señor, ella no entiende el Ingles. Cayes cucharas tiene la Francesa? Cuyos botones

tienen los criados? ¿Cuyo sombrero tiene Juan? ¿Qué libros tiene Pedro? ¿Quién tiene hambre? ¿Quiénes tienen sed? ¿Qué espécie de cucharas tienen las hermanas del Americano? Qué dicen los Españoles? Qué quieren Pedro y Juan? Toma el pintor água? Quién entiende lo que vms. dicen ? Qué dijo el padre del médico? ¿Quién tiene pan? ¿De quien son los libros? ¿Cual de los Franceses habla Español? A quién habla vin.?

¿Tiene vm. dinero? Tienen los carpinteros muchos amigos? ¿Tiene V. muchos libros? Tiene el libro hojas de oro Tienen los jueces hambre? ¿Es V. Español? ¿Son las casas nuevas?¿No son sus amigos ricos? Sus hermanas no son tan ricas como él? Mis hermanos no son mas ricos que los carpinteros de navío? Escribió el criado de juez cartas a las criadas de la Francesa? Es la muger amable? ¿Son los Ingleses mas soberbios que los Alemanes? Halló el pintor dos libros en la calle de la ciudad? Tienen los cria. dos hambre ? Sí, señor, los criados tienen hambre. Tienen las Españolas sed? No, señor, las Españolas no tienen sed.

ENGLISH-SPANISH.

Who is wise? Who is rich? Who are good? Who are culpable? Who is strong? Who are robust? Of whom does John speak? Of the physician. Whose (of whom) are the houses Peter's. Whose books has Mary? Whose buttons have the male-servants? Whose spoons have my sisters? Which of the two sons of the physician found a treasure in the road? Which of the two men is culpable? What say you (what says your-worship) What did you say? What does John wish? (what wishes John?) What does Peter say? What do the judges say? What hat have you? What treasures did Peter find? (what treasures found Peter?) What do you wish? What language does the general speak? For whom did John write the letters? For the French-woman. To whom (plur.) did John give the French books? To the daughters of the judge. What a woman! What a beautiful city! Who wishes bread? Who wishes sugar? Who speaks English? Who understands Spanish? Who speaks French? Who understands what Mary says? Who understand what the Americans say? What sort of spoons do my friends want? What do the women say?

FRENCH READING S.-No. XXIX.
L'ENFANCE DU POETE.

POURQUOI devant mes yeux revenez-vous sans cesse,
O jours de mon enfance et de mon allégresse ?1
Qui donc toujours vous rouvre en nos cœurs presque éteints,
O lumineuse fleur des souvenirs lointains ?2

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Oh! que j'étais heureux! oh! que j'étais candide !3 En classe, un banc de chêne, usé, lustré, splendide, Une table, un pupitre, un lourd encrier noir, Une lampe, humble sœur de l'étoile du soir, M'accueillaient gravement et doucement; mon maître, Comme je vous l'ai dit souvent, était un prêtre A l'accent calme et bon, au regard réchauffant, Naif comme un savant, malin' comme un enfant, Qui m'embrassait, disant, car un éloge excite : -Quoiqu'il n'ait que neuf ans, il explique Tacite." Puis, près d'Eugène, esprit qu'hélas Dieu submergea, Je travaillais dans l'ombre, et je songeais déjàs Tandis que j'écrivais ;-sans peur, mais sans système," Versant le barbarisme à grands flots sur le thème, Inventant aux auteurs des sens inattendus.10 Le dos courbé, le front touchant presque au Gradus, Je croyais, car toujours l'esprit de l'enfant veille, Ouir confusément, tout près de mon oreille, Les mots grecs et latins, bavards et familiers,11 Barbouilles d'enere, et gais comme des écoliers, Chuchoter, comme font les oiseaux dans une aire, Entre les noirs feuillets du lourd dictionnaire;12 Bruits plus doux que le bruit d'un essaim qui s'enfuit, Souffles plus étouffés' qu'un soupir de la nuit, Qui faisaient par instants, sous les fermoirs de cuivre, Frissonner vaguement les pages du vieux livre 13 Le devoir fait, légers comme de jeunes daims, Nous fuyions, à travers les immenses jardins,14 E'clatant, à la fois en cent propos contraires. Do you take water? Do you take sugar? What did Moi, d'un pas inégal, je suivais mes grands frères; John's sister say? What did the physician's brother say? Do Et les astres sercins s'allumaient dans les cieux,16 you want butter, sir? (sir, wishes your-worship butter) Does Et les mouches volaient dans l'air silencieux,1? your son speak Spanish, sir? (speaks his son Spanish, sir?) Et le doux rossignol, chantant dans l'ombre obscure, Yes, madam, my son speaks Spanish. Does your daughter Enseignait la musique à toute la nature;s understand English, madam? No, sir, my daughter does not understand English. Whose spoons has the female-Tandis, qu'enfant jaseur, aux gestes étourdis, servant? Whose hat has Peter? Whose buttons have the Jetant partout mes yeux ingénus et hardis,19 painters? What books has Mary? What bread have you? D'où jaillissait la joie en vives étincelles, 20 Who is thirsty? (who has thirst?) Who are hungry? What Je portais sous mon bras, noués par trois ficelles, do the Spaniards say? What do Peter and John wish? What Horace et les festins, Virgile et les forêts, sort of spoons has the carpenter's daughter? Does the Tout l'Olympe, Thésée, Hercule, et toi, Cérès,21 La cruelle Junon, Lerne et l'hydre enflammée, Et le vaste lion de la roche Némée.22

The learner can use vm., vmd., V., Vm., Vd., or Fmd, in the singular

for You.

VICTOR HUGO

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L'EMPLOI DU TEMPS.

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to which he alludes.

J. L.: The cause of delay must be in your bookseller. The German Lessons may be had from us without difficulty.

Au point de vue chrétien, le temps, ce domaine de Dieu, nous a été prêté par lui, pour gagner le royaume du ciel.1 Aussi dès le commencement du christianisme, l'emploi du temps a-t-il été strictement réglé par tous ceux qui voulaient vivre selon Dieu;3 et jamais l'oisiveté n'a été la compagne Magazine, or obtain it by application to the editor.

J. JAQUES: We cannot now undertake to give lessons in Hebrew, as our space is already fully occupied.

A CLERGYMAN: We hope to publish some drawing lessons early in the ensuing year.

de la sainteté.3

Au point de vue proprement humain, le temps est tout aussi précieux; il sert à gagner la fortune, à acquérir les talents et les connaissances dont on a besoin, à remplir dans toute leur étendue les devoirs de l'état où l'on se trouve engagé; et jamais, nous osons le dire, ces devoirs ne seront accomplis par une personne qui ne connaît pas le prix du temps. Filles, épouses, mères, quel que soit le bon désir qui vous anime, si vous n'êtes avares du temps, jamais vous ne serez à la hauteur de vos obligations. Les jours, les semaines, les mois, les années s'écouleront, et vous n'aurez rempli que la moindre partie de votre tàche, et vous n'emporterez que de tardifs regrets.

Sans vouloir astreindre servilement nos jeunes lectrices à un plan de vie, nous leur conseillerons cependant de se faire à elles-mêmes une règle qui les guide,' et de diviser les heures de leur journée de façon que chacune d'elles ait son occupation ou son délassement. 10 Que la prière, l'étude, la lecture les arts d'agrément, les travaux d'aiguille," aient des heures, fixes; que les promenades, que les visites aient également des moments réglés ;12 que l'heure du lever soit invariable et aussi matinale que possible,13 et la journée sera remplie. Et le soir en jetant un coup d'œil sur le tableau des heures écoulées, l'on ne sentira pas le regret insupportable, le malaise cruel que fait naître l'oisiveté, ce triste fléau que suivent l'ennui et le dégoût de soi-même.

Aimons l'ordre, pour Dieu, puisqu'il a mis tant d'ordre en ses œuvres ;15 pour nous-mêmes, puisque c'est le moyen d'employer la vie, ce don d'en haut et pour les autres, puisque c'est le moyen de leur être utiles et de ne pas séjourner ici bas sans laisser une trace de son passage et un doux souvenir après soi. EVELINE RIBBEcourt.

B-N H-H: Cassell's French Dictionary is the best for the money.
A BLACKSMITH might probably find what he wants in the Mechanic's

T. C. W.: It is not necessary to study the Lessons in English Grammar as well as those of Dr. Beard, but it may be useful to do so. Orthography should come first of all. We do not admire the method of question and answer. Our correspondent had better master English and Arithmetic t begin with. In the former he appears to be deficient, as he aske, "Is the Lessons in Geometry concluded?" From English he may go to Latin, then to French or German, and afterwards to Greek and Italian or Spanish, Next to Arithmetic comes Algebra, then Geometry, Chemistry, Natural Philosophy, etc. The order of other subjects must depend very much upon person's peculiar taste and turn of mind. In writing the Greek letters it is not necessary to join them, but simply to imitate the printed letters as nearly as possible. The reference which our correspondent wishes explained does not appear where he places it.

which we mentioned some time ago as being sent without name. JOHN F. ATKINSON is the name of the person who solved the problems JOHN TAYLOR and FIDELIS: We have received your communications, for which we return our best thanks The subject, which is one of great delicacy, is under consideration.

LITERARY NOTICES.

Now ready, price 98. 6d. strongly bound. CASSELL'S FRENCH AND ENGLISH DICTIONARY: Composed from the French Dictionaries of the French Academy, Bescherelle, etc.; and from the Technological and Scientific Dictionaries of both LanLandais, etc.; from the English Dictionaries of Ogilvie, Johnson, Webster, guages. By Professor DE LOLME and HENRY BRIDGEMAN, Esq. The following are the distinctive features which render this Work superior to any of the same class now extant. It has been compiled with unusual care from the very best authorities. It contains correct renderings of all the most modern words and phrases-including those of science, art, manufact ture, commerce, law, politics, etc., as well as familiar conversation-which are indispensable to a knowledge of language, but yet are rarely, if ever, to be found properly translated in any Dictionary. The idiomatic usages of the changes of meaning caused by different combinations of words--are the two languages-the constructions of verbs, the force of prepositions, and more copiously and carefully illustrated than elsewhere within the sams The meanings are also classified and arranged in such a manner as to prevent the possibility of mistake. To crown all, the Work is as moderate in price as it is comprehensive in aim, accurate in detail, and superior in Arrangement.The French-English Division, price 4. paper covers, or 5s. neat cloth; the English-French Division, price 4s. paper covers, or 5.

limits.

strongly bound.

ON PHYSICS, OR NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

No. LXII.

(Continued from page 540.)

CONSTANT-CURRENT PILES.

Principle of the Construction of Constant-Current Piles.-Piles with a single liquid are now generally out of use, owing to the rapid enfeeblement of the current. Use is made of piles with two liquids and partitions, because their action preserves a pretty constant intensity for a long time. The piles of this kind which are most frequently employed are Daniell's,

Grove's and Bunsen's.

In these piles the inconveniences of piles with a single liquid are corrected by means of two liquids capable of reacting upon each other, and separated by a partition, which allows the current to pass easily, but does not permit the two liquids to be mixed together-at least not readily. The two elements of the same couple are dipped into the liquids, one into one of them, and the other into the other. The conditions necessary to the success of these piles are-1. That only one of the elements of the piles being active, the other should be subject to no chemical action, but act merely as a conductor. 2. That the two liquids should be chosen in such a way that the current resulting from their mutual action through the partition, may be in the same direction as that to which the action of the acid upon the metals gives rise. Daniell's Pile.-One of the first constant-current piles ever constructed was that of Daniell, the eminent professor of chemistry at King's College, London, whose sudden death in the lecture room, a few years ago, shed a gloom over all scientific circles, and left a gap which cannot be easily filled up, as men of his superior endowments are not to be met with every day. Fig. 424 represents a couple of this pile, the form of Fig. 421.

which has been subject to great changes. A glass vessel v, is filled with an acid solution of sulphate of copper, into! which is plunged a red copper cylinder c, having several holes at the side and open at the two ends. At the upper part of this cylinder is a circular rim or cell G, with small holes below, which are dipped into the solution. This cell is intended to contain the crystals of sulphate of copper, which melt as the apparatus comes into play. Lastly, inside the cylinder c, is a porous earthenware vessel or partition P, filled with a solution of sea-salt, into which is plunged a cylinder z, open at both ends, and made of zinc amalgamated with mercury. To the zinc and copper cylinders are fixed (by means of thumbscrews) two thin plates of copper, which form the electrodes of the pile.

As long as the two electrodes do not communicate together, the pile is inactive, but directly the communication is established, chemical action begins; the water is decomposed, its oxygen combines with the zinc, and its hydrogen, reacting upon the sulphate of copper, combines with the oxygen in the oxide of the salt, so as to form water, while the copper forms

The solution of the sulphate of copper tends rapidly to get weaker, but as the crystals placed in the cell a, dissolve at a regular rate, the degree of concentration of the solution remains constant. As for the sulphuric acid which is set free by the decomposition of the sulphate of copper, it combines (at the same time as the oxygen of the water) with the zinc, so as to transform it into a sulphate; and as the quantity of sulphuric acid set at liberty in the solution of the copper is pretty uniform, the action of this acid on the zinc is so also. With this pile effects may be obtained which last for several hours, and even days, if care is taken to keep the solution in a state of saturation, by adding crystals of sulphate of copper from time to time. To combine several couples, join the zinc pole of one couple with the copper pole of the next couple by means of thumb-screws, and so on from one couple to another, With regard to the nature of the poles, it is the electrode as seen in fig. 428, which represents another kind of pile. fixed to the zinc which is negative, and that fixed to the copper which is positive, as in piles which we have already described. Instead of an earthenware porous vessel, some employ goldbeater's skin, animal membrane, paper, plaster of Paris, canvas, or any like substance, to separate the two solutions. The effect is at first more powerful than with a porous vessel, but the effect. In general the partitions ought to be permeable the two solutions mix together more rapidly, and thus weaken to the electrical current, but prevent as much as possible the mixture of the two liquids.

Daniell's pile is designed to remedy the defects of an motive action to subside rapidly, and soon cease, are the folordinary one. These defects, which cause the electrolowing:-1. The sulphuric acid becomes saturated with the oxide of zinc. 2. The hydrogen adheres to the surfaces of the 3. By the chemical action of the pile, the zinc contained metals, and thus prevents their perfect contact with the water. in the sulphate of zinc which is formed, is reduced to the metallic state at the surface of the copper, and deposited upon it in the form of a crust, where it acts locally and impairs the conducting power. 4. Electricity is carried off and dissipated by the escaping hydrogen. The adhesion of hydrogen to the zinc plate does not take place when that metal is pure or amalgamated with mercury; which is the reason why Daniell employs a cylinder of amalgamated zinc, instead of a plate of the common and impure metal. But the peculiar and most valuable feature of his battery is the use of the porous partition, which, as we have seen, may be made of various substances, and which divides the vessel containing the metals into two cells. The partition freely transmits the electrical current, but prevents the passage of the sulphate of zinc to the copper plate, and thus remedies the third of the abovementioned defects. The sulphate of copper being decomposed must be continually renewed by placing crystals of it in the circular cell; while the nascent hydrogen unites with the oxygen of the oxide of copper, so as to form water, and therefore does not interfere with the action of the conducting plate, nor carry off electricity.

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Grove's Pile.-Fig. 425 represents a couple of Grove's pile.

a non-adherent, dusty deposit on the sides of the cylinder c. This couple consists of the following parts:-1. A glass vessel

VOL. V.

140

A, partly filled with sulphuric acid and water. 2. A zinc cylinder open at both ends and divided along its whole length. 3. A porous vessel v, made of earthenware not much hardened by fire, and filled with common nitric acid. 4. A plate of platinum bent like the letter S, as in fig. 426, and fastened to a lid c, which is placed upon the porous vessel. A metallic rod b, communicating with the platinum plate, has a copper wire which serves as the positive electrode, while a second wire, fastened to the zinc, serves as the negative electrode. The zinc of which the plate is made is amalgamated with mercury.

shaped pieces, capable of being put within one another. These pieces are-1. An earthenware or glass jar F, fig. 427, filled with a solution of ten or twelve parts of water to one of sulphuric acid. 2. A hollow cylinder z, made of amalgamated zinc, to which is fastened a thin, narrow strip of copper, intended to serve as the negative electrode. 3. A porous vessel v, made of slightly burnt earthenware, into which common nitric acid is poured. 4. A coal cylinder G, prepared as described above, and a good conductor. At the top of the cylinder a copper ring is fastened on, to which a strip of the This pile acts very energetically in consequence of a chemical same metal is soldered, serving as the positive electrode, action between the two acids through the partition, which When you wish to work the apparatus, arrange it as at P in the develops a supplementary or secondary current in the same figure, by placing the zine cylinder in the earthenware vessel, direction as that produced by the zinc plate. Yet it is not then the porous earthen vessel, and lastly the coal cylinder. often used, owing to the expensiveness of the platinum. This As long as the zinc and the coal do not communicate tometal is also attended with another inconvenience, which is, gether, the pile is inactive, but directly a communication is that when the pile has been in operation for some time, it be-established by means of a conducting circuit, chemical action comes brittle and breaks very easily. begins. The water into which the zine is plunged, is decom

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posed by that metal and by the sulphuric acid, thus forming sulphate of zinc. As for the hydrogen which is set at liberty, it passes over to the nitric acid in the porous vessel and decomposes it, transforming it into hypo-nitric acid, one part of which is dissolved and the other disengaged. During these various reactions two currents are produced, the one arising from the decomposition of the water, and the other from the decomposition of the nitric acid. These two currents, which are in the same direction, go along the conductor from the coal to the zinc; that is to say, the positive pole corresponds to the coal, and the negative to the zinc.

Bunsen's Pile.-This pile, which is also known under the name of the coal pile, is the same as Grove's, with the exception that the plate of platinum is replaced by a cylinder made of an artificial preparation of coal. This cylinder is made by intimately mingling one part of caking coal and two parts of coke, the proportions varying according to the caking property. Some add to the mixture two parts of rye flour. The mixture is introduced into a cylindrical mould of sheet iron, in the centre of which is placed a case of wood or pasteboard, to facilitate the escape of gas during calcination. The mould is closed by a moveable cover well fitted on and luted; the whole heated gradually to redness, and the calcination con- To form a regularly constituted apparatus or pile, the tinued until the disengagement of gas ceases. The cylinder couples must be arranged as shown in fig. 428. To the zinc may be finished with a file or saw, or on a lathe. Before pro- and coal cylinders are attached strips of copper, bent over and ceeding to this last operation, in order to increase the co-joined by means of thumb-screws, care being taken to make hesiveness of the cylinders, it is necessary to soak them in a strong solution of molasses, dry them, and subject them to a very intense calcination.

Each couple of the coal pile consists of four cylindrically

the coal of each couple communicate with the zinc of the next one, and to end the first and last couple with two electrodes, A and B. In recent investigations M. Despretz has employed as many as 800 couples.

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