che sappia, that he may know che sappiamo, that we may know

che sappiate, that you may know

che sappiano, that they may

che sapésse, that he might know
che sapéssimo, that we might
know

che sapéste, that you might
know

che sapéssero, that they might
know

the orderly arrangement of words. The order here implied is the order of the thoughts, for words are uttered thoughts. Syntax, therefore, has its basis and its reason in logic, which expounds the natural laws of thought. Now, if you analyse a proposition, you will find that in its simplest state, a proposi. tion or statement, called also a sentence or declaration, contains a subject, and something that is said of that subject. Take as an instance

ή γυνή εστι καλη

the woman is fair.

Here yuvy is the subject. Of that subject it is said that it (she. yuun) is fair, εori Kaλn. We have then here two things to be considered, namely, n yun and eσri Kaλn. The former is the subject of the sentence, inasmuch as it is that of which something is declared. The latter is called the predicate of the sentence, inasmuch as it is that which is predicated or declared of the subject. Now, observe the subject consists of two words, and yum; the article and a noun. You may, however, have a subject without an article, as

γυνη τρέχει

a woman runs.

The predicate also consists of two words, namely, tort kaλn; a verb and an adjective. The verb is a part of the substantive verb eival, or the verb which denotes existence; the verb which affirms one thing of another, a quality of a subject. Here the verb cor predicates kaλn of yuvn. The verb sivat (or a verb of similar import, as yiyverai), united with an adjective forms what is called the predicate of a proposition; or that which is declared of the subject. Two things are requisite in a predicate, namely, a verb and an adjective; an adjective expressive of the attribute (hence called the attribute, and hence adjectives so circumstanced are termed attributives) or quality ascribed to the subject, and a verb which performs the office of ascribing or referring the quality to the subject. The verb as connecting the attribute with the subject, is called the copula, or link. Here, then, 1 present to you, with their logical designations, two

Subject.

1. ἡ γυνη

SIMPLE SENTENCES.

Predicate.

Copula.

Attribute.
καλη

τρέχει

εστι

In these simple statements you have the essential elements; first of all Syntax, and secondly and specifically of all the Greek Syntax. Syntax has nothing else to do than to show in detail what is here set forth generally. With each of these elements Syntax has to deal; with each of them separately; with all of them unitedly. It is the office of Syntax to show how each part may be modified, and how the several parts must grammatically stand to each other.

Greek Syntax then, you see, presents itself under two aspects; first, as Syntax in general, and secondly, as general Syntax modified by the peculiar usages or the peculiar forms of expression (words) of the Greek. It suffices for our purpose to point out this distinction. We shall treat of general Syntax as it appears in a particular form, namely, as observed by the best Greek prose writers.

Of Greek Syntax the essential laws are implied in the sentences just given. Look, again, at the first sentence. You see that the predicate is in one sense identical with the subject; for the attribute fair belongs to or inheres in the woman; εσTL is merely the connecting link. The copula identifies the two. This will be soon evident if you change the form a little; as ή καλη γυνη the fair woman

and case.

εστιν

εκεί

is

there.

Here can and yuvŋ are brought together so as to show that the two belong to the subject of which we speak. That sub2. γυνη ject is not simply yvvn, a woman, or any woman; nor is it Yuun TIL, a certain woman; but ǹ kaλŋ yʊvŋ, the fair woman. The second sentence you will see is logically equivalent to the Consequently, kaλŋ and yʊvŋ refer to the same person, and first. In consequence, TpExer contains in itself a copula and an referring to the same person they combine to describe that attribute, and is in itself the predicate of the proposition. person. As they then agree so as to be one in fact or in Without these parts you cannot have a complete proposi-thought, so must they agree so as to be one in form. Hence tion. I mean you cannot have a complete proposition without arises the first concord, namely, that a subject and a predicate. Every predicate must either con- Adjectives must agree with their substantives in gender, number, tain a verb, or be a verb, inasmuch as it is the function of the verb to make an affirmation. If in the first sentence you I have added the words "in gender, number, and case," in drop EσT, you have no affirmation, and consequently no order to present the rule complete at once. The reason of that sentence. Yet, especially in the Greek language, the copula addition you will see in the fact that in Greek, substantives is often understood; in other words, it exists in the mind and and adjectives undergo changes in gender, number, and case. does not appear in the utterance or in the writing; many ex-But that reason is grounded in the nature of things. Take amples have appeared in the foregoing exercises. Again, if gender first. Tuvn is of the feminine gender, therefore have I you drop waλn, the attribute, then no full statement is made; written can. Had I written caλog, I should have connected the woman isis what? The sentence is incomplete. The a masculine adjective with a feminine noun, and committed verb elvaι may, however, denote simply existence, and then the solicism of declaring the woman a fair man. Had I written does not take an attribute, as God is, that is, God exists, kaλov, I should have said that the woman was a fair thing; a Θεός εστιν. form of speech allowable only if I had wished to express contempt of the particular woman referred to.

Είναι with an attribute ὁ Θεός εστιν αγαθος God is good
without
ὁ Θεός εστιν οι
God exists
ἐστιν ὁ Θεός.

If, now, you drop ǹ yvvŋ, then you have no subject, and consequently nothing of which a declaration can be made;

In the second place, advert to number. Suppose I had written kala; then I should have made the woman at once singular and plural; intimating that she was one and more than one person. In the third place, had I written kaλns, I should have produced a different sense, for, by disconnecting caλŋ from yvvŋ, the predicate from the subject, I should have

said something of this kind-" the woman is (the daughter, or the mother) of the fair one."

Similar remarks would serve to show that the article (which is a species of adjective-a qualifying, that is, determinative word) must also agree in form with its noun, seeing that it of necessity agrees in sense, both referring to the same object. As adjectives and substantives which agree in sense must agree in form, so

The subject must agree with its verb.

If, for instance, I had put before the verb or a plural subject, as al yuvaIKES, saying the women is fair, then I should have represented the subject as at the same time plural and singular, intimating that it was plural by the form of the noun and the form of the adjective; and intimating that it was singular by the form of the verb. Similarly erroneous would it have been had I written oi (they are) for eσri (she is). We now come to case. Take the example

ἡ γυνη τυπτει τον υἱον.

These preliminary explanations contain the substance of the Greek Syntax. Other observations, particulars, and rules, are only the expansion and the application of these general principles.

Take an illustration of the fact in an expansion of the sentence, yuvп TUTTEL TOV viov. You may make this simple sentence into a compound sentence, by adding another verb,

e. g.

Here rov viov is in the accusative case, illustrating the fact that TUTT is one of those verbs which require their object to be in the accusative case. Other verbs place the object in the genitive case, and others in the dative case. In either the accusative, the genitive, or the dative case must every object be. Consequently a noun found in either one of these cases is known to be an object-an object governed by a preposition if not by a verb. In the sentence given above, then, I know that rov viov is the object, or receives the action implied in TUTTEL, because it is in the case of the object, the objective or accusative case. Instead of being rov viov, were it ò vios, I Here we have what is equivalent to two sentences, a compound should not know which of the two, i yuvn or ò vios, was the sentence, that is, consisting of two members, which two memsubject. And if ǹ yuvŋ were tηv yuvaika, then ò vioç remain-bers if expressed in full, would be two sentences; e. g.

ing the same, the sense would be the son struck the mother; for in Greek the sense depends on the form of the words, not their arrangement.

Now then suppose that I had written την γυναικα εστι καλη, I should have sundered ran from yvvn, making the subject an object, for it is in one of the cases in which the object appears. Had I written ǹ yuvŋ εotɩ kaλŋy, I should have employed an object кaλŋy, without any verb or preposition to govern it.

Observe, moreover, that caλn is in the same case as yvvn, though a verb comes between them. That verb is sor. Hence you may infer, as a general rule, that the verb elvaι has the same case after it as before it; the reason is found in the fact already mentioned, that divat, as a copula, merely unites the attribute with the subject. Indeed, whether, as here, the adjective is an attribute, or whether it is an epithet immediately qualifying the noun, the adjective must agree with the noun in gender, number, and case.

The parts of a sentence thus explained may be variously modified.

τύπτει

γυνη προςκαλεῖ και TOV viov the woman calls and strikes her son.

ή κακη γυνη TUTTEL
the bad woman strikes her
γυνη δεινως TUTTEL
the woman severely strikes
n γυνή
the woman strikes her

του

vios

τον

son. vior

her son.

TUTTEL TOY

απειθη υἱον disobedient son.

1. The article may be dropped, and then you have yʊvn εσTI Kaλn. The article becomes plural if the noun is plural; it The Object may also pass into the dual number to agree with the noun. 2. The subject may be in either the plural or the dual number.

3. If the subject is changed so as to be in the plural or dual number, the verb must also be changed.

4. The verb may undergo changes, passing into the dual or the plural, in order to correspond to the subject.

5. If the subject is in the dual or the plural number, the attribute is changed into the corresponding number.

Also in the second sentence, yuvŋ Tuπtel Tov viov, many similar changes may be made in the subject, the verb, and the object. Besides changes like those just pointed out, the subject may be involved in the verb, being indicated by the person-ending, as

τυπτω τον υἱον

1 strike my son

where subject and verb blend together in TUTTш. Another change may be undergone, for the verb may contain the whole

A secondary
ή γυνή,
the woman,

I may exhibit these facts to you thus

Subject.

Primary ή γυνη

Secondary ή Ασπασια

καλούμενη

Verb.

τύπτε

In these instances, the radical sign or index is separately applied to the numerator and denominator. But if the divisor and dividend are reduced to the same index or radical sign, this may be applied to the whole quotient.j

3. Thus "a"√/b= Dya = For the root of a fraction is equal to the root of the numerator divided by the root of the denominator.

Object. τον υίον εν τω οικω ένεκα της απειθειας. You will readily see how each of the principal parts may be extended; thus you may prefix an adjective to yuvn; you may qualify the verb by an adverb, and you may qualify the object by an epithet. As the primary, so also the secondary subject and object may be qualified; the verb may also be√ doubled, or a participle may be introduced instead of a second verb, or together with a second verb; and thus the simple sentence may be expanded into a compound sentence, and give you an instance of what the Grammarians meant when they termed a sentence or the expression of a thought, a period or a circle (Tepíodos). I here give the sentence in an expanded form, as a period or compound sentence :

Η κακη γυνη, ή Ασπασια καλουμενη, προςκαλέσασα τον απειθη υίον, εν τῷ οικῳ, ένεκα τῆς απειθείας, λοιδορεῖ και τυπτει ἰσχυρῶς.

This period may be presented in a state of analysis thus:

..

4. Again, "Vab√b="/a. For the product of this quotient into the divisor is equal to the dividend; that is, √ √ ab. Hence

Quantities under the same radical sign or index, may be divided like rational quantities, the quotient being placed under the common radical sign or index.

9. Divide (a3)m by (ax)m.

10. Divide (ay)↑ by (ay)*.

First Sentence ή
Second Sentence

yuun λοιδορεῖ
γυνη TUTTEL

του viov
TOV υἱον

1

1

11

12. In the same manner, am÷a3=aTM an

The sentence thus enlarged brings permanently into view what in grammar is called government. One word is said to govern another, when the second is dependent on the first, and undergoes some inflectional change under the influence of the first. Thus the nominative viog is changed into the accusative viov by the verb TUTTE, on which it depends, and by which therefore it is said to be governed. In the same way απειθης becomes απειθη under the operation of the verb τυπτει, and in order to agree with viov. So the preposition ev changes Okog into oury, and our is said to be governed in the dative case by the preposition v. For the same reason απείθεια appears in the genitive case, anotaç, because it depends on vexa, which requires its object to be in the genitive.

16. Divide (b+y) by (b+y)".
17. Divide (23)7 by (r2y3)7.

Powers and roots of the same letter may also be divided by each other, according to the preceding article.

18. Thus a2÷ac2=a. For a3× a3 = a3 = a2.

When radical quantities which are reduced to the same index, have rational co-efficients, the rational parts may be divided separately, and their quotient prefixed to the quotient of the radical parts.

19. Thus ac bd÷a√b=c√d. For this quotient multiplied into the divisor is equal to the dividend.

20. Divide 24x√ ay by 6√ a

21. Divide 18dh√ bx by 2h√ x.

1

1

22. Divide by (a3x2)ñ by у(ax)^.
23. Divide 16/32 by 8√/4.
24. Divide b1xy by √y.

25. Divide ab(x) by a(x).

These reduced to the same index are ab(x2¿) and a(z2)aa.
The quotient then is b(8)a— (¿5)3.

=

To save the trouble of reducing to a common index, the division may be expressed in the form of a fraction.

The quotient will then be

ab (x2b)

a(x)

Hence we deduce the following