employ either εk, out of, or año, from-both with the genitive, as denoting the source or origin of any thing. Sometimes, when the writer means on the part of, poc, with the genitive, is employed, if the subject is of a personal kind. Hapa also with the same case may be used when the idea of place is involved; rapa thus denotes, from the side or neighbourhood of, from the resources of; it may also denote the means by which an act is set in operation.

If a thing or a circumstance is given with the passive as the occasion of the act spoken of in the verb, then the object is generally in the dative without a preposition. Also the person by whom a condition is brought about stands with a passive verb, sometimes in the dative without a preposition, most frequently with the perfect and the pluperfect, and regularly with the verbal adjective. Instances are given in the

exercise.

Every passive predicate may be converted into an active one, or may be derived from an active one. In this change the object in the active representation becomes the subject in the passive.

Passive Predicate (converted into) Active Predicate

ὁ παῖς τυπτεται ύπο του ανδρος
the boy is struck by the man.
ὁ ανηρ τυπτει τον παῖδα.

If, however, a verb in the active voice takes two objects, only one of them can appear as subject in the passive. The Greeks prefer the personal object of the active as the subject for the passive, while the object which represents a thing is retained as an object, in the case of the object. This is so in instances in which the active takes both objects in the accusative; sometimes also when the personal object of the active appears in the dative.

The Greeks subjoined to intransitive verbs in the accusative the abstract object implied in the verb, saying, for instance, to live a life, Biov Bival. From this active a passive was formed, as Bioc ßeßiwraι, a life has been lived. Agreeably to this usage they employed the verbal adjective, as βιος βιωτος, liveable life; Bios aßiwroc, an unliveable life, that is, a life tolerable or intolerable. Frequent is the use of the perfect passive (or middle) participle in this way, as тa noeẞnueva, the impieties.

In English, it is only transitive verbs that can properly appear in the passive. But in Greek, intransitive verbs may assume a passive form. Nor is the passive form limited to verbs which in the active govern an accusative case; but verbs whose active voice takes a genitive or a dative, are in Greek found in the passive or middle voice. In general the employment of that voice is more extended than is the use of the passive voice in English.

The middle form of the verb presents the subject as active, but at the same time as acted on by its own act. Hence the middle form is essentially reflective. The operation thus undergone by the subject is either immediate or mediate. If the operation is immediate, then the verb has simply a reflex import, inasmuch as the action comes directly back on the agent or subject. If the operation is mediate, then does that operation take place by means of an object, and by that object the operation is thrown back on the subject. Thus the reflective sense is intimately connected with the passive.

Some verbs altogether want the active form, and, appearing only in the middle, have the reflex or intransitive signification. These are called deponents, because they have laid down (in Latin, de, down, and pono, I put) the active form. These deponents may be divided into two classes-middle deponents and passive deponents. The middle deponents are those which form their aorist with a middle form, as aιolavoμai, I perceive, a.

ᾔσθόμην. The passive deponents are those which form their

aorist with a passive form, as duvapai, I am able, a. eðvvn@nv. For the expression of external circumstances the Greeks use the middle voice in its redex sense but sparingly. Examples of such usage are

Το ποιεῖσθαι, from

Most common is the use of the reflective middle, when a condition of mind is represented, and the subject appears as in his own spirit producing a result, or as acting on his own internal state. Thus, apexe means to afford, to offer, and rapexeσbai, to offer or give one's self, to present from one's self, of one's own accord, from one's own resources. mouiv, to do, means to labour with one's own energies, to account something as so-and-so in one's own mind. In the same way, λapBaveolat, from λaußavev, to take, signifies to take in, comprehend, form a conception of. Again, Bovλeveσdai, from ßovλEVELV, to counsel, is to counsel one's self, to take advice, to reflect, consider,

consult.

In order to express the act of a person who places himself in some external condition, the Greek language, like the English, employs the active voice and the personal pronoun, as π\ŋTMTM Eμavrov, I strike myself.

Much more common is the mediate use of the middle voice to express that which is done in some way for or to the subject, for the benefit or interest, or at the command of the subject. This reference to the subject is sometimes strengthened by the reflective pronoun, as iavry εƉETо voμov, he made a law for himself.

The Middle Voice used Mediately.

νίζεσθαι τους πόδας μισθωσασθαι οικιαν αιτεισθαι τι προβάλλεσθαι τα όπλα αγεσθαι γυναῖκα μεταπέμπεσθαι τινα αποπέμπεσθαι τινα αμυνεσθαι

to wash one's feet
to take a house

to ask a favour

to present arms

to marry a wife

to send for a person

to send away, get rid of

to guard one's self against, punish.

The use of the middle voice, in contrast with the active, may be illustrated in the verb τιθεναι as τιθεναι νόμους, το establish or give laws (the act of the legislator), and T1000αL vouous, to pass or enact laws (the act of the legislature or people).

Sometimes the reference of the act to the subject is direct and obvious, as kaipɛσlai, to get one's hair cut; didaσкεolai, to have one's self taught; so didαokεobal Tоvs Taidas, to secure instruction for one's children; dikaleobaι, to seek justice, to institute a lawsuit; πaparıdeo0ai rηv тpañɛlav, to procure one's self a table.

For two tenses, the future and the aorist, there are special forms to express a strictly passive sense. Of these two forms, however, the aorist is used, instead of the middle form, in many reflective and intransitive verbs; all other tenses appear in the middle. Hence the rule-the future and the aorist of the middle have a reflex or intransitive signification and not a passive one, for which there are special forms (the future and the aorist passive), all the other tenses of the middle serve also to express passive meanings

EXERCISES.-GREEK-ENGLISH.

Εκτωρ απέθανεν ὑπο Αχιλλεως. Κριτίας έφυγεν ὑπο τοῦ

Τούτο το

δημου. Αλκμαιωνιδαι ύπο των τυράννων εξέπεσον. Παυσανίας
εις την είρκτην εςπίπτει ύπο των εφόρων. Οἱ αγαθοι μισοῦνται
ὑπὸ τῶν κακών. Πόλεις εκ βασιλεως δεδομεναι εισι.
πραγμα προςεταχθη εκ τοῦ Κυρου. Επραχθη απο τῶν τυραννων
ουδεν εργον αξιολογον. Μεγαρεων οἱ πλεῖστοι απ' εξωμιδο-
ποιιας διατρεφονται. Αἱ βαναυσικαι τεχναι πανυ αδοξοῦνται
προς των πολεων. Φαλῖνος ποτε πεμφθεις παρα βασιλεως
εκέλευσε τους 'Ελληνας τα όπλα παραδοῦναι.
Ήσαν αυτο
καμηλοι πολλοι παρα των φίλων συνειλεγμεναι. Κυρος ὁ νεω-

481

τερος αρχειν ην αξιωτατος, ὡς παρα παντων ὁμολογεῖται. | δε Αντισθένους το διεῤῥωγος τοῦ τριβωνος εις τουμφανες, ὁρῶ Νοσῳ εφθαρμενοι εισιν οἱ Αθηναῖοι. Απαντα ταυτα πεπρακται σου, εφη, δια τοῦ τριβωνος στην κενοδοξίαν. Ὁρῶν ὁ Σωκρατης τοις εμου ψηφισμασι. Διοικοῦνται αἱ μεν τυραννίδες και ολι- τον Αλκιβιάδην τετυφωμένον επι τῳ πλουτῳ και μεγα φρονοῦντα γαρχίαι τους τροποις των εφεστηκότων, αἱ δε δημοκρατιαι τοῖς επι τοῖς αγροῖς, ηγαγεν αυτον επι τινα τοπον, ενθα ανέκειτο νομοις τοις κειμενοις. Οἱ Κορινθιοι χρημασι δυνατοι ησαν, ὡς πινακιον εχον γῆς περιοδον, και προςεταξε την Αττικην ενταῦθα και τοῖς παλαιοῖς ποιηταῖς δεδηλωται. Των νοσηματων πολλαι αναζητειν. θεραπεῖαι τοις ιατροις εύρηνται. Ταληθες ανθρωποις ουκ διαθρῆσαι· του δε ειποντος, αλλ' ουδαμου γεγραμμενοι εισι· επι Ὡς δε εύρε, προςέταξε τους αγρους τους ιδιους εὑρισκεται. Ειρηνης επιθυμετεον εστιν ανθρωποις. Ασκητεον τουτοις, είπε, μεγα φρονεῖς, οἱπερ ουδεν μερος τὴν γῆς εισιν. εστι σοι την αρετην. Ασκητέα εστι σοι ή αρετη. Διδασκουσι | Ελεγεν ἡ Ξανθιππη ὡς, μυρίων μεταβολῶν την πολιν κατασχουτους παῖδας τας τέχνας. Ο παις διδάσκεται τας τεχνας. Παιδεύω σῶν, εν πασαις ὁμοιον ἦν το Σωκρατους προςωπον, και προϊοντος τον Σωκρατη την μουσικην. Σωκρατης μουσικήν μεν επαιδευθη εκ της οικίας και επανιόντος αει θεᾶσθαι. Ηρμοστο γαρ προς ύπο Λαμπρου, ῥητορικήν δε ὑπ ̓ Αντιφωντος. Αφαιρούνται παντα επιεικώς, και ην ίλεως αει την διανοιαν και λυπης ὑπερανω Κροῖσον την αρχην. Κροῖσος αφαιρεθεις την αρχην, διέτριβε πασης και φόβου κρειττων παντος ων. παρα τω Κυρῳ. Πειθω σε ταῦτα. Εγω επεισθην ταῦτα ὑπο σου. Επιτρεπω σοι την φυλακην. Οἱ επιτετραμμενοι την φυλακην απεκτειναν τους εχθρους. Οἱ λῃσται αναχθεντες προς βασιλεα απετμήθησαν τας κεφαλας. Αποτέμνω σοι την κεφαλήν. Επιτάττω σοι τούτο. Ει ξυγχωρήσετε, και αλλο τι μεῖζον ευθυς επιταχθήσεσθε. Μεγαν κινδυνευεις κινδυνον. Ασεβοῦσι ασεβημα οὗτοι οἱ ανθρωποι. Ασεβημα ασεβεῖται. Τα κινδυνευθέντα σε σφαλλει. Ουκετι απειλοῦμαι, αλλ' ηδη απειλω αλλοις. Τῳ στρατηγῳ οἱ στρατιωται επιβουλευουσι. Πολλοι δια τον πλοῦτον επιβουλευόμενοι απόλλυνται. Κρεῖττον εστι πιστευεσθαι ύπο της πατρίδος, η απιστεῖσθαι. Ασκεῖται το αει τιμῶμενον, αμελεῖται δε το ατιμαζόμενον. Οἱ πονηροι μονοι επαινοῦσι ἑαυτους. Ετυψάμην την κεφαλην. Ὁ πατηρ τους παιδας εδιδαξεν. Ὁ πατηρ τους παιδας εδιδαξατο. Αργεῖοι ἑαυτων εικονας ποιησαμενοι ανεθεσαν εις Δελφους. Καταφρονῶ των φενάκων. Καταφρονεῖται ὑπ' εμου ὁ λοιδορῶν.

VOCABULARY AND REMARKS,

Εφυγεν, was banished, from φευγω, I fee.
Εξέπεσον (εξ and πιπτω), were driven out.
Είρκτη, ης, ή, an inclosure. a prison.

Εξωμιδοποια, ας, ή, the making of the garmen ts called εξωμίδες, a species of frock or cloak worn by males.

Βαναυσος μου, a mechanic or smith, a land-labourer.
Διοικεω, I live apart, I govern, manage (δια and οικος), των
εφεστηκ., of their governors ; τοις κειμεν., the established laws.
Ξυγχωρέω (συγχωρεω), I go with, agree, yield.

ENGLISH-GREEK.

Cicero

The soldiers were slain (died by the citizens. (Κικέρων) was banished by the people. That bad man was cast into prison by the judges. A good man is not hated by a good man. A city has been given to me from the king. These things are enjoined on you by your parents. Hand-workers are despised by the foolish. Socrates is allowed (confessed) by all to have been a very wise man. They have had their heads cut off. The bad man despises the good man. Good men are despised by bad men. The youths wash themselves. The girls are taught music by me. I teach the girls music. Wisdom is to be desired by all. All wise men desire wisdom. Wisdom is desired by me. They acquire wealth. They possess wealth. I take wealth from that bad man. Wealth is taken from foolish youths. My father persuades me to learn music. I am persuaded to teach my children. I shall cause my children to be taught. He caused his children to be taught

music.

HISTORICAL ANECDOTES.

VOCABULARY, ETC.

Συμπεριφέρω, I form a com- |
panionship with, I am fa-
miliar with.
Φαῦλος, bad, low.

Θαῤῥέω, I am strong, bold;

Διδούς αιθανομαι, is one of the
θαῤῥει, take courage !
verbs that take a participle
after them instead of an in-
finitive.

Βαθυτατα γηρῶν, having be-
come a very old man; προς
αμφότερα, in regard to both
(life and death).

Ζηλωτης, ου, o, an admirer.
Το διεῤῥωγος (from διαῤῥηγ
νυμι), the rent; τρίβων,
ωνος, ὁ, an old bare cloak;
το εμφανες ; σου depends on
Τυφοω (our typhus), I puff up;
κενοδοξίαν, vainglory, pride.
πινακιον, ου, το, a tablet,
‘Αρμόζω, I fit, adapt, accom-
here a map; διαθρεω (com-
pare θηρεύω), I seek out.
modate, hence our harmony.

varrémo, we will be worth varréte, you will be worth varránno, they will be worth

Conditional Present. Varrei, I should or would be worth

Valéva or valés, I was worth
να ένι, thou wast worth
ναιένα or vala, he was worth
valevámo, we were worth
valevano or valiano, they were varresti, thou wouldst be worth
valeváte, you were worth

Σωκράτης καλεσας επι δεῖπνον πλουσίους, και της Ξανθιππης αιδουμενης, εφη, θαῤῥει· ει μεν γαρ ειεν μετριοι, συμπεριενεχθειεν αν' είδε φαῦλοι, ἡμῖν αὐτῶν ουδεν μελήσει. Αισχίνου δε ειποντος, πένης ειμι και αλλο μεν ουδεν εχω, διδωμι δε σοι εμαυτον, ἄρ' ουν, ειπεν, ουκ αισθανη τα μεγιστα μοι διδους; Σωκρατης βαθυτατα γηρῶν, ειτα νοσῳ περιπεσών, επει τις αυτον ηρώτησε, πῶς ἔχει; καλῶς, εἶπε, προς αμφοτερα· εαν μεν γαρ ζῶ, ζηλωτας | Valsi, I was worth έξω πλείονας· εαν δε αποθανω, επαινετας πλείονας. Στρεψαντος υαlesti, thou wast worth

worth

Indeterminate Preterite.

varrébbe, he would be worth varrémmo, we would be worth varréste, you would be worth varrébbero, they would be worth

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

vagliámo or valiúmo, let us be
worth

vdylia or valga, let him be valéte, be (ye or you) worth

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD,

Present.
Che véda, végga, or véggia, that
I may see

che véda, végga, véggia, or véggi,
that thou mayst see
che véda, végga, or véggia, that

he may see
che vediamo or veggiámo, that

che vediate or veggiate, that you
may see
che védano, véggano, or véggiano,
that they may see

Antivedere, to foresee
Avvedersi, to perceive
Disvedere, to neglect
Divedere, to show
Malvedere, to hate
Prevedere, to foresee
Provvedére, provide

XVIII.

Vedere, to see.

Present Gerund: vedendo or Past Gerund: avendo veduto,

Present: volére, to be willing

Present Gerund: voléndo, be- Past Gerund: avendo voluto,

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Past Participle: voluto, been

Past Participle: vedúto or visto,

Voglio or vo', I am willing
vuór, vuóli, or vuo', thou art
willing

vuole, he is willing
vogliamo, we are willing
voléte, you are willing
vogliono, they are willing

Voléva or volta, I was willing
volévi or voléi, thou wast will-
ing

voléva, voléa, or volia, he was

Future.

Cuocerò or cocerò, I shall or will
cook

cuocerái or cocerái, thou wilt
cook

cuocerà or cocerà, he will cook
cuocerémo or cocerémo, we will
cook

cuoceréte or coceréte, you will
cook
cuoceránno or coceránno, they
will cook

Conditional Present.
Cuoceréi, coceréi, or cocería, I
should or would cook
cuoceresti or cocerésti,

thou

wouldst cook
cuocerebbe, cocerébbe, or cocería,
he would cook
cuocerémmo or cocerémmo, we
would cook

cuoceréste or coceréste, you would

cook
cuocerebbero, cocerébbero, or coce-
ríano, they would cook

Before a noun masculine of the plural number, los is used;

Los reyes, the kings.
Before a noun feminine of the

Los platos, the plates. plural number, las is used;

as,

El ama, the mistress.
Un arca, a chest.

Las arcas, the chests. 1

El hambre, the hunger.
El água, the water.

In the plural, such nouns take the regular feminine article ; Las águas, the waters. If an adjective intervene between the article and feminine noun (even though the adjective begin with a or ha accented), the feminine article is always used; as,

La ancha arca, the broad chest. | Una buena ama, a good mistress. Remark.-There are very few feminine nouns in Spanish which begin with a or ha accented; so that the exceptions to the general use of la and una are very few.

When the preposition á (to) or de (of) comes immediately before the masculine article el, a contraction takes place, and both words are united. Thus, instead of á el and de el (to the and of the), al and del are used; as,

Al padre, to the father.
Al ama, to the mistress.
Before the other articles, la,
prepositions á and de, as well
changed; as,

Del muchacho, of the boy.

Del hambre, of the hunger.

los, las, lo, un, and una, the as the articles, remain un

De los hombres, of the men.
De lo futuro, of the future.
De una noche, of a night.

A' la muger, to the woman.
A' las hermanas, to the sisters.
A' un dia, to a day.
De el is sometimes used before the surnames of persons; as,
De el César, of the Cæsar.

The Spanish articles should not always be translated into English; and sometimes they are not expressed in Spanish when they would be in English; as,

La humilidad y la mansedumbre
brillan menos que el orgullo,
La vida no es un sueños,
Con todos los hombres ten paz,
El capitan Smith tiene memória,
Ella tiene marido,

Humility and meekness glitter
less than pride.
Life is not a dream.
With all men have peace.
Captain Smith has a memory.
She has a husband.
article should be rendered

Sometimes the Spanish definite by the indefinite in English; as, El paño se pueda comprar á tres

duros la vara.

La harina se vende á seis duros
el barril.

three dollars a yard. The cloth can be bought for Flour is sold at six dollars a barrel.

Before feminine nouns singular beginning with a or ha, not accented on the first syllable, this rule does not apply; and, of course, la or una is used.