In propositions which in English set forth general truths or | Ο κρατῶν ἅμα παντα συνήρπακε. Οι βουλεύεσθαι ώρα, αλλα facts which arise from common experience, the Greeks also | βεβουλευεσθαι. Εν εκείνῳ τῷ καιρῷ, ότε πᾶσι δουλειαν επέφερεν employ the aorist to indicate a single fact or observation; e.g. ὁ βαρβαρος, οἱ Θεβαῖοι μετ' αυτού ησαν. Αγησίλαος τα θεια Πολλα ανθρωποις παρα γνωμην έπεσε Many things happen to men contrary to their expectation. A present transaction may in Greek be put in the aorist to represent it as already over and done. This takes place chiefy in questions and brief expressions made by the subject respecting his own determinations; as εγέλασα, I laughed, that is, I must laugh; εδάκρυσα, I cannot help weeping ; τί ουκ απῆλθες, why are you not gone? The participle of the aorist has the force of a preterit. But the subjunctive, the optative, the imperative, and the infinitive of the aorist are used so as to represent the act as a single event or past from continuance in time or space, while the corresponding forms of the present exhibit the same act or condition in its progress and continuance; e.g. Χαλεπον το ποιειν, το δε κελευσαι ῥᾳδιον οὕτως εσέβετο, ὡς καὶ οἱ πολεμιοι τους εκείνου όρκους και τας εκείνου σπονδας πιστότερας ενομίζον η την ἑαυτων φιλιαν. Αφίκοντο επι τον ποταμον, ὡς ώριζε την τε τῶν Μακρώνων και την τῶν Σκυθινων χωραν. ̔Ο Χαλος ποταμος πληρης ην ιχθυών μεγάλων και πραέων, οἷς οἱ Συροι θεους ενόμιζον. Ου τοῦτ ̓ ην ευδαιμονία, κακου απαλλαγη. Αληθες αρα ην το εἶναι το αδικεῖν τοῦ ἀδικεῖσθαι κακιον. Οἱ Αθηναῖοι Περικλεί ανεπειθοντο τε και εςεκομίζοντο ἐκ τῶν αγρῶν παῖδας και γυναῖκας και την αλλην κατασκευην, ἡ κατ ̓ οἶκον εχρῶντο· προβατα δε και υποζύγια ες την Ευβοιαν διεπέμψαντο. Δαρεῖος μετα Καμβύσην Περσων εβασίλευσεν. Διενειμαντο την αρχην ὁ Ζευς και ὁ Ποσειδων και ὁ Πλουτων, επειδη παρα τοῦ πατρος παρελαβον. Ο πολεμος ἁπαντων ήμας απεστερηκε και γαρ τοι πενεστέρους πεποιηκε, και πολλους κινδυνους ὑπομενειν ηναγκασε, και προς τους Έλληνας διαβεβληκε, και παντας τροπους τεταλαι πώρηκεν ἡμας. Αἱ πλεῖσται πολεις προςταττουσι μη κλέπτειν, The future declares that the action or condition will take | μη άρπαζειν, μη απειθεῖν αρχοντι και τάλλα τα τοιαῦτα· ην δε place in time to come. The periphrastic future, formed with τις τούτων τι παραβαίνη, ζημιας αυτοῖς επέθεσαν. Ουχι συγε parts of μελλω and the infinitive present, future, or aorist, is to be distinguished from the simple future. The latter is a αυτικα μαλα ευδαίμων εγενου και εμε ευδαιμονα εποίησας; future indefnite, merely declaring that an act will take place Απέπτυσα τοιαύτην συγγενειαν. Πολυ ῥᾷον εστι φυλάττειν or a condition arise at some future moment; while the former | χρηματα η κτήσασθαι. Επειδαν άπαντα ακούσητε, κρίνατε, μη is a future with a limitation, denoting that the circumstance προτερον προλαμβανετε. Παυσαι νυν ηδη, μηδ' ερωτησης πέρα. will occur in relation to some other time, either immediately Εν τυχοιης και τυχοις όσων ερᾷς. Δικαια δρασας συμμαχου in the present, or after another future event. The simple future, or the future formed by adding a termination to the τεύξει θεου. Ως αληθη οντα λέξω σοι ά μελλω λεγειν. Δεήσει stem, as representing a thing that will be, may denote an αγαθοῦ αει επιστατου, ει μέλλει σοι ἡ πολιτεία σώζεσθαι. Κλεαρ event that is to be, or must be ; so it comes to signify a re- χον λεγειν ἔφασαν ὡς δεοι τον στρατιωτην φοβεῖσθαι μαλλον quest or convey a command, especially in questions with ou. τον άρχοντα η τους πολεμίους, ει μέλλοι η φυλακας φυλάξειν η The future may also express that which is conformable to the character of the subject, that which may be expected from the απροφάσιστως ιέναι προς τους πολεμίους. Οἱ εις την βασιλικήν subject, as τεχνην παιδευομενοι τί διαφέρουσι τῶν εξ αναγκης κακοπαθουν των, ει γε πεινησουσι και διψήσουσι και ριγωσουσι και αγρυπνη σουσι ; Ου μ' εασεις ; Έξεις ατρέμας. Ανήρ σοφος τας εν τῷ βίῳ συμφορας ῥᾷον οισει των αλλων. Υπέσχετο εν ποιήσειν ἡμας. Ο δικαιος ανηρ εν βιώσεται, κακως δε ὁ αδικος The just man will live well, but the unjust ill. After verbs signifying to promise, to wish, to request, to hinder, to swear, to expect, to hope, &c., the Greeks use either the infinitive future, or the infinitive present, or the infinitive aorist. The perfect future or third future denotes a condition or an action which is considered as completed in the future, e.g. Μάτην εμοι κεκλαύσεται In vain shall I have wept. This third future is used also to indicate a continuous future condition, and serves therefore as the ordinary future to verbs which in the perfect have a present signification; e.g. Αει της σης φιλίας μεμνησομαι EXERCISES.-GREEK.ENGLISH. Εδεήθησαν οἱ Κορινθιοι τῶν Μεγαρέων ναυσι σφᾶς συμπροπεμψειν. Οἱ Αθηναῖοι εφίεντο της Σικελίας αρξειν. Πανταχου εν τῇ Ελλαδι νομος κεῖται τους πολιτας ομνύναι ὁμονοήσειν. Τους χρηματισμους τους παρα το δικαιον γιγνομενους ἡγεῖσθε μη πλοῦτον αλλα κινδυνον ποιησειν. Εν "Αιδου εισομεθα ταληθες. Ει τινα αλληλοις μαχην συνάψετε, νομίζετε εν τηδε τη ήμερα εμε τε κατακεκοψεσθαι και ὑμᾶς ου πολυ ύστερον. Ουκ, επειδαν ἡμεῖς τελευτησωμεν, οἱ λόγοι οἱ περι ἡμων σεσιγησονται. ENGLISH-GREEK. They hold their peace. They will hold their peace. They are about to hold their peace. They will have held their peace. They have held their peace. They hold their peace. They were holding their peace. They had held their peace. War and battle are the causes of evil to the world. They have been banished. They will be banished. Those men acquire property. These women possess much property. My brother is married. Those citizens are accounted wise. Laws exist Πολλων κακων ανθρωποις αιτιος εστιν ὁ πόλεμος. Το κακον in Greece which command all the citizens to be of one mind. ουδεποτε γιγνεται αγαθον. Διονυσον τίκτει ποθ ̓ ἡ Καδμου | Good citizens desire to be of one mind. Alexander conquered κόρη. Οἱ εν Σικελια Αθηναιοι και Ρηγίνοι τριακοντα ναυσι | Darius and reigned in his stead. Socrates taught the young στρατευουσιν επι τας Αιολου νήσους καλουμένας, Αρτι γιγνω- men of Athens virtue, and was condemned to death. Those σκεις τόδε, ὡς πας τις αὑτον μᾶλλον του πελας φιλεῖ; Αρτι boys have been taught music, but cannot sing. Draco affixed ήκεις, η παλαι; Ουκ αποδεδρακασιν οἱ φευγοντες· οιδα γαρ, will lay waste what things were left in the former invasion. one punishment to all offences, namely, death. The enemy ὑπῃ οιχονται. Κολαζονται οι ανθρωποι οὓς αν οιωνται αδικεῖν. I have been brought up in adversity. Thy sister has been Εν ταις δυςπραξίαις ἡμῖν επιδεικτεον εστιν, ότι τῶν αλλων well educated, and sings beautifully. This is the time to do αμεινον τεθραμμεθα και πεπαιδευμεθα προς αρετην. Ορας (for action, to have done), and not to consult. They persuade. όσοι μεν οἴκοι ιδιωτῶν εἰσιν ηυξημενοι απο πολεμου, όσοι δε They trust. He was persuading. He trusted. Trusting in τυραννων. Εν τοις Δράκοντος νόμοις μια ἁπασιν ώριστο τοις in fight. They will go away in fight. He remembers my friends I have come hither. They will go. They went away ἁμαρτάνουσι ζημια, θανατος. Πεμπτῳ έτει του πολέμου οἱ friendship. They will remember thy friendship. Good men Πελοποννησιοι εδρωσαν τῆς Αττικής τα τε προτερον τετμημένα | will live well (happily), bad men unhappily. It is not so easy και ει τι εβεβλαστηκει και όσα εν ταῖς πριν εςβολαῖς παρελελειπτο. to do as to command. They commanded but they do not They were commanding. They have commanded. I com- nasceréte, you will be born manded. He commanded the boy to learn well. VOCABULARY, REMARKS, AND QUESTIONS. Пeλaç, adverb, near; ò æɛλaç, your neighbour. Toeow, I am arrested, brought up. Avžavo, I increase. 'OpiZw, I set a limit or boundary; ópoç, a limit, a mountain. Aniow and dyow, I lay waste; dŋïog, hostile, like an enemy. O κparov, etc., he who has become master, has thereby seized, that is, he now possesses, all. Ιχθυς, υος, δ, ιχθυν, ιχθυες, acc. pl. ιχθύς. Προϋς and πρᾶος, neut. pl. πραεα, gen. pl. πραεων, tame, render. Taλainwρew, I make wretched; raλainwoos, wretched. El ye mεivnoоvot, since they hunger and thirst, etc. Ov j'eaσric, let me alone; compare the colloquial phrase, won't you have done? Arpeμas (a and тpɛμw), adverb, quietly, here "be quiet." Ομυνοεω (ομος and νους), I am of one mind, I agree. Why is yLyvWokEg in the present tense? What is the tense of reg, and why? Why is anodεdaкaσiv in the perfect tense? What is the meaning of the present perfect? What is the exact meaning of the aorist? How does the aorist differ from the perfect? from the imperfect? When is the present tense used to describe a past event? What is the meaning of the term "historic-present?" What is the meaning of KEKTŋμai? How does it get that meaning of οιδα? οἱ γεγημηκα? State the significations of the simple future; of the future formed by μew; of the third future. What are the person, mood, and tense of each of the following forms, and why are the verbs in these forms ; namely, ώριστο ; εδωσαν ; εβεβλαστηκει ; παρελέλειπτο, συνήρπακε ; βεβουλευεσθαι ; εσέβετο ; ενόμιζον ; ώριζε; εασεις ; ποιήσειν; αύξειν ; κατακεκοψεσθαι ? What is the exact force of the present? of the imperfect? of the pluperfect? Into what divisions may time and tense be divided? What relation has tense to time? What are the chief modifications of meaning borne by the middle voice? How does the middle voice differ from the passive voice? What tenses have an exclusively passive signification? Is the exclusiveness without restriction? Present Gerund: being born. nasceranno, they will be born nascerebbe or nascería, he would Present Gerund: nocendo or Past Gerund: avendo nociúto, Present. Nuoco, I hurt INDICATIVE MOOD. nuóci, thou hurtest nócquero or nuócquero, they did hurt Future. Nuocerò or nocerò, I shall or will hurt nuocerai or nocerái, thou wilt hurt nuocerà or nocerà, he will hurt nascéndo, Past Gerund: essendo nato, Nocéva, nocéa, or nuocéva, I did nuocerémo or nocerémo, we will having been born. INDICATIVE MOOD. Nasceva, I was born nascevi, thou wast born nasceva, he was born nascevamo, we were born nascevate, you were born nascevano, they were born Present. vinciámo, let us conquer SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Che vinca, that I may conquer che vinca or vinci, that thou mayst conquer che vinca, that he may conquer che vinciamo, that we may conquer che vinciáte, that you may conquer che vincano, that they may conquer Avvincere, to tie up Imperfect. Che vincéssi, that I might conquer che vincéssi, that thou mightst che vincesse, that he might con- che vincéssimo, that we might conquer che vincéste, that you might conquer che vincessero, that they might conquer So conjugate Rivincere, to conquer again Stravincere, to get too much. LESSONS IN SPANISH.-No. III. Adjectives in Spanish have both a singular and a plural form, according as they are used with singular or plural nouns; as, Grande hombre, large man. | Grandes hombres, large men. The rules for the formation of the plural of adjectives are the same as those for forming the plural of nouns. Adjectives which end with an, on, or o, and such as are derived from the names of nations, change not only from the singular to the plural, but also from the masculine to the feminine, to agree with the noun (expressed or understood) to which they belong; as, Hombre generoso, generous man. man. those ending with an or on, as well as those derived from the names of nations, form their feminine by adding a to the masculine. In forming the plural of adjectives which are modified by gender, the gender must be taken into consideration first, and then the plural ending added; as, Adjectives in Spanish are generally placed after the nouns which they qualify; though some generally come before the noun; and some can precede or follow the noun, according to the taste of the writer or speaker. Thus, Un hombre respetable, a respectable man. Remark-In English, an adjective is sometimes allowed to come after the noun; as when we say-a verb neuter; a noun feminine; an account current; life eternal. But the rule is a far more general one in Spanish. Some adjectives and adjective pronouns drop the final o in the masculine singular (but not in the plural), when they are placed before the noun, but never when they are placed after it. These are uno, a (or one); alguno, some; ninguno, none; primero, first; postrero, last; tercero, third; bueno, good; malo, bad; as, Algun fruto, some fruit. Un buen gobierno, a good government. Un buen hombre, or un hombre bueno, a good man. Santo, saint, when prefixed to the name of a male person, drops its last syllable; as, San Pablo, St. Paul; San Pedro, St. Peter. Ciento, hundred, when it immediately precedes a noun, masculine or feminine, drops its final syllable; as, cien arboles, hundred trees; but ciento y dos árboles, hundred and two trees. Grande, great, large, generally loses its final syllable when the noun to which it is prefixed begins with a consonant; as, gran poder, great power. When grande does not mean size or magnitude, but good qualities, gran is used if the noun follow it. Thus, gran hombre means a great man, and grande hombre, a large man. Adjectives are often used without the noun (the latter being understood); as, El pobre, the poor (man); la | La derecha, the right (hand). Los pobres, the poor (men); las (man). The gender can be known by the article which precedes the adjective. If the adjective refer to something to which we do not apply a gender, the neuter article lo is used; as, lo poco, lo mucho, the little, the much, or that which is little, that which is much. In cases in which the position of adjectives would present any difficulty to the learner, the order of the words will be numbered, thus: los hombres magnánimos son bien hechores del género humano1. The figures here indicate that in translating into English, magnanimos is to come before hombres, and humano before género; as, the magnanimous men are benefactors of the human race. The order in which English words must be placed in Spanish, will be indicated in the same manner when deemed necessary, thus: the open3 rebuke is better than (wo-(the) secret love. Here the figures show the order in which the words should be arranged in translating into Sprnish; as, mejor es la correccion manifiesta, que el amor escondido, that is, better is the rebuke open, than the affection hidden. fanfarrona, bragging Olgazan, idle (man); olgazana, A sentence is rendered negative in Spanish by placing the adverb no (not) before the verb; as, Juan no es sabio, John is • Mano, hand (feminine), is here understood. not wise; Pedro no tiene dinerc, Peter has not money; María | no tiene sed, Mary is not thirsty; Diego no escribió cartas, James wrote not letters (or, James did not write letters). Sábio, wise. Ignorante, ignorant. Falaz, deceitful, false. Rico, rich. Pobre, poor. Bueno, good. Malo, bad, evil. Nuevo, new. VOCABULARY. Tenebroso, dark, gloomy. Espacioso, spacious, wide. Lindo, pretty. Dos, two. Ingles, English. Español, Spanish. Frances, French. Tres, three. Amigo, friend. Léngua, tongue, language. General, general. Es, is. Camino, road, way. The comparative of inferiority is formed by placing menos (less) before, and que (than) after the adjective; as, El Judio es ménos rico que el Frances, The Jew is less rich than the Frenchman. The comparative of superiority is formed by placing mas (more) before, and que (than) after the adjective; as, Mi madre es mas rica que la reina, my mother is more rich (richer) than the queen. Mayor, greater; mejor, better; and menor, less, are already in the comparative degree, and do not require mas before them; as, Los reyes son mayores que los lores, the kings are greater than the lords. The superlative degree of the adjective expresses the quality in a very high or very low, or in the highest or lowest state; hence there are two sorts of superlatives, the absolute and the relative. Thus we may say, London is a very large city, or, London is the largest city in England. The superlative absolute is formed either by placing muy (very) before the adjective, or by affixing the letters isimo to the El Español ama, the Spaniard Los Españoles aman, the Spa- simple form of the adjective; as, El camino es estrecho. La casa es espaciosa. Las mugeres son sobérbias. Los Ingleses no tienen dinero. Las Inglesas no tienen hambre. Los Españoles no tienen sed. Las Americanas son hermosas. Los libros son nuevas. Un buen general es el alma de un ejército. El Frances es pobre y sobérbio. El amigo del médico es ignorante. El juez es sábio y rico. La lengua2 falaz1 no ama la verdad. Los Americanos aman dinero. Los hijos del pintor son fuertes y robustos. Los pobres tienen hambre. ENGLISH-SPANISH. The Frenchman wrote letters to the Spanish-woman. The Americans are friends of the English (Ingleses). The way of the wicked is dark. The daughters of the Spaniard (Español) are pretty. The books are new. The house of the physician is spacious. The horses of the Englishman are strong. The sons of the judge are poor and proud. The daughter of the French-woman is proud and ignorant. The sisters of the painter are rich and handsome. A good man loves the truth. A false tongue loves not the truth. The Spaniards and the Americans love money. The silver spoons (cucharas de plata) are new. The road is narrow. The judge's son is bad and ignorant. The printers are rich. The physician's male servant is robust. In Spanish proper names employed as adjectives are not generally written with a capital initial letter; thus we write, libros españoles, Spanish books; and not libros Españoles. DEGREES OF COMPARISON. When two things are compared, the one is equal, inferior, or superior to the other; hence there are three sorts of comparison; that of equality, inferiority, and superiority. Thus we may say, John is as happy as James; John is less happy than James; or, John is more happy than James. These adjectives are all properly in the comparative degree. The comparative of equality is formed by placing tan (as, so) Sometimes tan is omitted, and como only used; as, Juan es fuerte como un leon, John is strong as a lion. Cual (qual) is sometimes found instead of como. Tan used before an adjective, without como, means so; as, tan grande, so great. U'til, useful. Muy útil, or utilisimo, very useful, or most useful. when isimo is affixed; as, grande, great; grandisimo, or muy If the adjective ends with a vowel, this vowel is dropped grande, very great; alto, high; altísimo, or muy alto. Adjectives that end with ble, co, go, and z, change these letters respectively into bil, qu, yu, and c, before the suffix isimo; as, noble, noble; nobilísimo, very noble; seco, dry; sequisimo, very dry; largo, large; larguísimo, very large; feraz, fruitful; feracisimo, very fruitful; or, muy noble, muy seco, muy largo, muy feraz. LITERARY NOTICES. Now ready, price 9s. 6d. strongly bound. CASSELL'S FRENCH AND ENGLISH DICTIONARY. Composed from the French Dictionaries of the French Academy, Bescherelle, Landais, etc.; from the English Dictionaries of Ogilvie, Johnson, Webster, etc.; and from the Technological and Scientific Dictionaries of both Languages. By Professor DE LOLME and HENRY BRIDGEMAN, Esq. The following are the distinctive features which render this Work superior to any of the same class now extant. It has been compiled with unusual care from the very best authorities. It contains correct renderings of all the ture, commerce, law, politics, etc., as well as familiar conversation-which most modern words and phrases-including those of science, art, manufacare indispensable to a knowledge of language, but yet are rarely, if ever, to be found properly translated in any Dictionary. The idiomatic usages of the two languages-the constructions of verbs, the force of prepositions, and the changes of meaning caused by different combinations of words-are more copiously and carefully illustrated than elsewhere within the same limits. The meanings are also classified and arranged in such a manner as to prevent the possibility of mistake. To crown all, the Work is as moderate arrangement. The French-English Division, price 4s. paper covers, or 5s. in price as it is comprehensive in aim, accurate in detail, and superior in neat cloth; the English-French Division, price 4s. paper covers, or 5s. strongly bound. |