ΧΙ. In this respect, the French language is like our own, as used in common conversation. The system of WORD-CONWhenever a word ending with a Consonant immediately NECTIONS, in sentences and phrases in both languages, is nearly identical. For the purpose of illustration, we will begin of the final Consonant of the former word is carried to the first precedes a word beginning with a Vowel or silent H, the sound by giving specimens of WORD-CONNECTIONS in the English syllable of the latter, or to the word itself, if it be a monosyllable, My hat was on the table,-is pronounced as if printed-This is most particularly the case, if the two words are intijust as if the latter word commenced with that Consonant. Hy hat woz-zon the table. mately connected in sense. language, viz. :— I jumped upon the ground,--is pronounced as if printed I jumpt-tup-pon the ground. Not at all,-is pronounced as if printed-Not-tat-tall. The above Rule owes its existence entirely to Euphony; to subserve which, almost everything else is sacrificed in the too rigidly, except in poetry. Neither in prose nor conversation, does this Rule hold good in the following cases, viz. :— 1. When a harsh sound would be the consequence. I assert a dogma; another denies it, is pronounced as if French language. Still the student must not observe it printed-I assert-ta dogma; another deniez-zit, etc. words in question. XII. These and similar WORD-CONNECTIONS Occur in almost every sentence and phrase in the English language, where the continuity of sound is not broken by punctuation marks, without our being sensible of it. It is unavoidable. We are, and have been, so constantly used to it, that we notice it only when attention is called to it. It will be observed that the foregoing T, in the words ET-a conjunction meaning and-and WORD-CONNECTIONS in the English language occur, when a CENT-meaning a hundred—is never carried to the following word ending with a Consonant is immediately followed by word in pronunciation. another word commencing with a Vowel. And the same exists, when, in common conversation, the word following the one with a final Consonant, begins with a silent H, viz. :— I was out about an hour-is pronounced as if printed-1 taz-zout-tabout-tan-nour, etc. WORD-CONNECTIONS in the French language also occur under circumstances exactly similar; i. e. when a word ending with a Consonant immediately precedes another word commencing with a vowel or silent H. This feature, therefore, of the pronunciation of French, both in ordinary reading and common conversation, will present no great difficulty to the student. The following Rules, thoroughly understood and committed to memory, will place the student beyond doubt and hesitation concerning these WORD-CONNECTIONS, and other matters pertaining to the correct, intelligible use of the French language, both in READING and CONVERSATION. I. Pay no attention whatever to the Apostrophe. II. Pronounce ELLE, like the English L. 111. The final letters ENT of Verbs with which ILS and ELLES do or can agree, are always silent. IV. XIII. A, in the word AOÛT, is not generally sounded. Sometimes, however, it is pronounced, but it is considered incorrect. This word, AOÛT—meaning August (the month), is pronounced OO, and not AH-OO. XIV. carried to the second syllable in pronunciation. XV. Whenever a word ending with a silent E is immediately followed by another word beginning with a Vowel or H mute, the Consonant preceding the silent E of the first word is carried to the next word in pronunciation, viz. :— LA FRANCE ENTIE'RE; as if printed HONNÊTE HOMME; as if printed XVI. With the words AH! EH! OH! OUEST,-one of the points of the compass-OUF! OUI, ONZE, ONZIE ME, PHO! In reading poetry, IA, IE, IE, IO, ION, IER, and some- UNIE'ME, YACHT, YATAĞAN, YOLE and YUCCA, no times IEN, are pronounced as two syllables. DIX,-ten,-before a Consonant, is pronounced DEE; All final Consonants after R are silent; except in the words before a Vowel or H mute, DEEZ; and at the end of a clause, MARS, and OURS—a bear. X. In the word MESSIEURS, the final letters RS are never pronounced. as DEESS. XXI. SIX,-six,-before a Consonant, is pronounced SEE; before a Vowel or H mute, SEEZ; and at the end of a clause, as SEES. 5611 che adducéssi, that thou mightst bring che adducesse, that he might bring Che adducéssi, that I might che adducéssero, that they might bring che adducéssimo, that we might bring che adducéste, that you might bring bring So conjugate Infinitive. Indet. Pret. Future. Cher Hier Sadder Condurre, condusst, Cuiller Hiver Stathouder and Enfer Jupiter Ver. Fer Lucifer XXIV. Addurre, to bring. INFINITIVE MOOD. Simple Tenses. Indúrre, indussi, Introdurre, introdussi, Produrre, prodússi, Ricondurre, ricondussi, ridussi, Divide each word naturally into syllables, as you would in Ridurre, the English language. LESSONS IN ITALIAN GRAMMAR.-No. XL. Thirdly.-Verbs in urre, contracted from cere. Sedurre, sedússi, Tradurre, tradússi, Fourthly.-Verbs ending in gere. inter induce lead in tradurrò, tradótto, Dedúrre, dedussi, indurrò, indótto, Present: addurre, to bring Compound Tenses. Past: avere addótto, to have brought Present Gerund: adducéndo, Past Gerund: avendo addótto, having brought bringing turning having turned Che vólga, that I may turn turn che vólga, that he may turn turn che volgiate, that you may turn che volgano, that they turr. may Imperfect. 561 So conjugate come to plunge rise against Un ubriacóne travagliato da grandissimi dolóri, che patíva in un' ócchio, mandò a chiamár il médico, il quale venúto che fù, avendo trovato l'occhio molto infiammato, gli disse: "Caro signóre, bisogna astenérvi dal vino se non voléte pérder affatto l'occhio." "Se così è," rispose l'altro, "potéte serbár i vostri rimédj per voi, signór dottore; ío voglio più tosto pérdere una finestra che tutta la casa." per, for, to Aspergere, aspergo, aspe'rsi, asperso, sprinkle Astergere, astergo, asté'rsi, asterso, cleanse a wound soma, a load Compungere, compungo, compúnsi, compunto, afflict Congiungere, congiungo, congiúnsi, congiunto, join Convolgere, convólgo, convólsi, convólto, roll benche, although Consurgere, consurgo, consursi, gridare, to cry Cospergere, cospe'rgo, sprinkle spesso, often Castringere, costringo, costrinsi, costretto, compel guardare, to take care Dipingere, dipingo, dipínsi, Discingere, discingo, discinsi, discinto, ungird of the way Disgiungere, disgiungo, disgiúnsi, Dispergere, dispergo, dispersi, disperso, disperse Emergere, emergo, emersi, E'rgere, é'rgo, é'rsi, Fingere, finto, Frangere, frango, fránsi, fránto, feign Giungere, giungo, giúnsi, giúnto, Indúlgere, indulgo, indulsi, indulto, grant Infrangere, infrango, infransi, infranto, break Ingiungere, ingiungo, ingiúnsi, Immergere, immergo, Intingere, intingo, Insurgere, insurgo, insursi, insúrto, Mérgere, mergo, Mungere, múngo, múnsi, munto, Piungere, piángo, piánsi, Pingere, pingo, pinsi, pinto, paint Porgere, pórgo, pórsi, pórto, Pungere, púngo, púnsi, punto, Raggiungere, raggiungo, raggiunsi, raggiunto, present Ravvolgere, ravvólgo, ravvólsi, ravvolto, Retropingere, retropingo, retropinsi, retropinto, Ricingere [re ricingo, ricínsi, ricinto, Ricongiunge-ricongiungo, ricongiunsi, ricongiunto, Ridipingere, ridipingo, ridipínsi, ridipinto, Rifrangere, rifrango, rifránsi, rifránto, Ripiangere, ripiango, ripiánsi, ripianto, Ripórgere, ripórgo, riporsi, ripórto, Ripúngere, ripúngo, ripúnsi, ripúnto, Rispe'ngere, rispe'ngo, rispe'nsi, rispé'nto, Rispergere, rispérgo, rispersi, risperso, Rispingere, rispingo, 1 rispinsi, rispinto, Ristringere, ristringo, ristrínsi, ristretto, Ritingere, ritingo, ritinsi, ritinto, Rivolgere, rivólgo, Riungere, riúngo, Sconvolgere, sconvolgo, Scórgere, scórgo, Smúngere, smúngo, smúnsi, smúnto, Sommergere, sommergo, sommeʻrsi, somme rso, Sorgere, sorgo, sorsi, Spárgere, spárgo, spársi, sórto, Spingere, spingo, spinsi, spinto, spórsi, sporto, U'ngere, úngo, únsi, únto, wrap reflect Un contadino portando una soma di legna per véndere, benchè gridásse spesso, "Guarda! guarda!" un goffo non voléndosi scostáre, fù urtato dal contadino, e gli fù stracciato il mantello. Volendo poi che 'l contadino gli pagasse, lo condússe d' inanzi al podestà, il quale, udíto il caso del querelante, domandò al contadino, se ciò era vero; il quale non rispose mai. Onde il giudice voltátosi a quel del mantello, "Che vuói tu," gli disse, "ch' io faccia ad un muto?" muto? Non è muto, perchè poco fà gridáva a tutta voce, 'Guarda! guarda !'"'"S' egli gridáva, dovévi guardare, e così non t' avrebbe stracciáto il mantello." ENGLISH-ITALIAN. "Che I was asked why I had entered the city. He married her, thinking that in time she would make (say, become) an excellent wife. A king, wishing to enter a city, asked certain weep again deputies who were sent to him by the senate, whether a banoffer again quet was prepared for him in the palace, because he had not sting again yet eaten (anything) that day. Wishing to joke with a extinguish tailor, I asked him why he cabbaged (say, stole) the cloth of sprinkle those who gave (it) him to make clothes. How many fools repulse are there of you in this street? Seeing night come on, I asked restrain a barber whom I met in the road, whether I could still go in at the gate of the city. He must have had most excellent ability in his youth. There are about a dozen of us, without reckoning the painter. The bishop answered the king that he was still hungry. A countryman complaining of a scarcity of corn, said many would die of hunger in that city. The painter has caught the likeness well. He resembles him in body and in mind. In time you will become old and die. I asked him why he had not eaten (anything) at three o'clock in the afternoon. It was not necessary for him to tell them that he was still hungry. You boasted of having joked with a king. Children in their tender years have much vivacity. stretchout The senate wished to make war upon the young prince, who was not at a (say, the) mature age. A waggon of hay could go in at the gate of the city. In his (say, the) mature age he became stupid. I admire the vivacity and quickness of your genius. dye again turn back anoint again gird overturn perceive dry up submerge spring out spread thrust anoint chiamare, to call, ask for médico, a doctor, medical man infiammare, to inflame signóre, sir vino, wine perdere, to lose LESSONS IN SPANISH.-No. VII. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. his only desire was that of freeing his country from the Sara cen yoke, su único deséo era el de libertar á su patria del yug sarraceno; the repose of the poor-man is not a cheerless leisure like that of the rich-man, el descanso del pobre no es un ócio insípido como el del rico; Saguntum endured a siege equal to-that of Numantia, Sagunto sufrió un sitio iqual al de Numán The demonstrative pronouns are este, this; ese, that; aquel, cia; the soldiers of General Brown are as brave as those of that. They are thus declined : that. that. this. Estos, Esos, Aquellos, estas, esas, these. those. aquellas, those. Este, Ese, Aquel, " aquella, There is also, in the singular number of each of these demonstrative pronouns, a neuter form, used when we cannot ascribe a gender to it; esto, eso, aquello. In such a sentence as, "he ought to be honest, for this is the duty of every man,' it is evident that no gender can properly be applied to the demonstrative this, and in such a case esto would be used in Spanish. Este is used with what is near at hand; as, este hombre, this man (here): ese with what is somewhat distant; as, ese hombre, that man (there): and aquel with what is still more distant; as, aquel hombre, that man (off there, yonder). When relating to time, este is used with time present; ese with time past; and aquel with time still more distant; as, "this (este) book which I now have, that (ese) book which I had last week, and that (aquel) book which I had last summer, are valuable." Este refers to the last mentioned of two things, and ese (or aquel) to the first; as, El general y el capitan vinieron; ese (or aquel) es prudente, este es fatuo, the general and the captain came; the-former is prudent, the-latter is stupid. When este or ese comes before the indefinite pronoun otro (other), the former drops its final letter, and the two are joined, forming one word; as, estotro or estotra, this other; estotros or estotras, these others; esotro or esotra, that other; Esotros or esotras, those others. If the objective case of the relative pronoun quien (whom) is used in such phrases as, he whom, she whom, him whom, etc., aquel, must come before it; aquel á quien, he whom; aquella d quien, she whom; aquellos or aquellas á quienes, they whom; as, Aquellos contra quienes pelearon, those against whom they fought. When the relative pronoun of the objective case is not preceded by a preposition, the indefinite article is generally used instead of aquel, and is followed by the relative pronoun que; as, el que, he whom; la que, she whom; los or las que, they whom. Thus it will be perceived that he whom may be rendered either aquel á quien or el que; she whom, by either aquella á quien or la que; they whom, or those whom, by either aquellos or aquellas á quienes, or los or las que. The latter mode is most generally employed. ά When the objective case of the personal pronouns Him, her, or them, precedes the nominative of the relative Who, either aquel or the definite article may be used; as, Juan dió pan á aquella que tiene hambre, or Juan dió pan d la que tiene hambre, John gave bread to her who is hungry. When in English the demonstrative pronoun That is followed by the preposition Of, and refers to a noun already expressed, the definite article is employed in Spanish; as, Por su prudéncia y por la del juez, through his prudence and through that of-the judge. The English demonstrative pronoun That is rendered in Spanish by the definite article when it refers to something having preceded it and is followed by the preposition Of; as, My house and that of my servant, mi casa y la de mi criado; It may be proper to mention again, that quien (whom) is never employed in the objective case, even if governed by a verb, without being preceded by preposition. General Canrobert, los soldados del general Brown son tan valientes como los del general Canrobert. When in cases like those referred to in the preceding rule, the possessive case in English is employed instead of the demonstrative pronoun That, the definite article is used in Spanish; as, My house and my servant's, mi casa y la de mi criado; I have my book and my father's, tengo mi libro y el de mi padre; my wine is better than John's, mi vino es mejor que el de Juan; that is,-my house and that of my servant; my book and that of my father; my wine is better than that of John. Este hombre es rico. Aquella muger es sobérbia. Esos libros son nuevos. Estas cucharas son de oro. Aquellos pintores son pobres. Estas casas son nuestras. Esos sombreros son mios. Este vino es bueno. Esa cerveza no es buena. ¿De quiénes son aquellas casas? ¿De quién es está casa? ¿Quién es ese caballero? ¿Habla este caballero la léngua española1? ¿Habla esa señora la léngua inglesa1? Ese espejo es viejo. Aquel hombre Esta lámpara es nueva. habla Frances. ¿Son estos mis zapatos? ¿Cuyo es ¿Cuyos son esos tenedores? La Francesa y la Española tienen prudéncia; esa es mas amable que esta. Aquel á quien mi padre escribió las cartas, tiene mucho dinero. Aquellos á quienes Pedro dió los libros, son pobres é ignorantes. Aquella a quien Juan dió un espejo, es muy hermosa. cuchillo ? esté Diego dió los libros á los que vm. vió. Lucia dió vino á aquella que tiene sed. El librero dió dos libros á la que le escribió las cartas. Esta casa y la que vmd, vió, son mias. ¿No es este el hijo del panadero? No es esta la hija del zapatero? No son estas las hermanas del posadero? El sombrerero escribió estas cartas. Esos tenedores son suyos de ella. Estos cuchillos son suyos de él. Este espejo es mio. Este hombre es mi amigo. ¿Quién es esa muger? ¿Quién • The masculine article is here used before Espanol and Ingles because these agree with idioma (idiom, or language) understood. Idioma is masculine. es este caballero? ¿Es este el libro de su hermana de vm.? No, señor, este es el libro de mi padre. Esta brisa es agradable. No es esta brisa agradable? ¿Cuya es esta pluma ? Diego halló mi sombrero y el del médico. Las cucharas de Lucia y las de María son de oro. La pronunciacion del Aleman no es tan fácil como la del Español. Juan no tiene mi libro, pero él tiene el de mi hermana. Las calles de Lóndres son mas anchas que las de Madrid. La ciudad de Madrid no es tan grande eomo la de Londres. Mi cerveza no es tan buena como la de Diego. Mi casa es alta, pero la de mi hermano es mas alta.¿Tiene vm. mis plumas ó las de mi padre? ¿Tiene el sombrerero mi sombrero ó el de mi amigo? El sombrerero no tiene su sombrero de vm., pero tiene (he-has) el de su amigo de vm. ¿Tiene el panadero mi pan ó el del posadero? ¿Tienen los libreros tus espejos ó los de tu madre? Los libreros no tienen mis espejos, pero tienen (they-have) los de mi madre. La cerveza del posadero es tan buena como la del zapetero. Los zapatos del librero son tan viejos como los del panadero. El vino de Diego es tan bueno como el de Pedro. ENGLISH-SPANISH. no, some; algo, something; nada, nothing; otro, other; tal, such; ambos, both; entrámbos, both. Of these, uno, todo, ninguno,* alguno,* otro, and tal are declined like adjectives, both in the masculine and feminine. Cada, nádie, alguien, algo, nada, are used only in the singular, and do not change. Ambos and entrambos are already in the plural, but have their feminine, ambas and entrambas. There are also some indefinite relative pronouns, quienquiera, cualquiera, cualesquiera, whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever. combined, with examples of the manner in which they are We subjoin a list of these indefinite pronouns, simple and employed in Spanish. The following are always used as nouns, that is, are never joined to a noun : Los cuatro animales, cada uno de ellos tenía seis alas, the four Uno otro, each other. Juan y Diego se aman uno á otro, John and James ¡love each other (love themselves one to the-other.) Unos otros, one another. the others). the miser. Nadie, nobody, no one. This gentleman is good. This woman is rich. That man is rich. That woman is proud. Those spoons are new. Those books are old. Those painters are poor. These spoons are of Orad los unos por los otros, pray for one another (the some for gold. These houses are lofty. Those hats are ours. This beer is good. That wine is not good. Whose houses are those? Whose (of whom) house is this? Who is that gentleman? Who (plur.) are those gentlemen? Does that A nádie ama el avaro, the miser loves nobody (to nobody loves lady (señora) speak the Spanish language1? Does this gentleman speak the French language1? This lamp is not new. That looking-glass is not old. That man speaks English. Are these my shoes? Whose hat is that? Whose knives are these? Whose fork is this? The Spanish-woman and the English-woman have prudence; the former is more amiable than the latter. He to whom my mother wrote the letters has much money. Those to whom James gave the pens are poor and ignorant. She to whom the hatter gave a looking-glass is poor and proud. Lucy gave the spoons to those whom you saw. James gave Alguien, somebody, any body. ¿ Le a visto alguien ? has any body seen him. Uno y otro, one and the other, both. Uno y otro son amables, both of them are amiable. Yo tengo algo que comer, I have something (which) to eat. maintain myself. the knives to him whom John saw. John gave wine to him Nada tengo con que mantenerme, I have nothing with which to who is thirsty. Mary gave bread to her who is hungry. The bookseller gave three books to her who wrote him the letters. This house and that (la) which you saw are mine. Is not this the brother of the hatter? Is not this the daughter of the baker? Are not these the sons of the shoemaker? Are not these the sisters of the innkeeper? Is not this the mother of the bookseller? The carpenter wrote these letters. Those knives are hers. These forks are his. This looking-glass is ours. This man is my friend. Who is this lady? Who is that woman? Who is this gentleman? Is this the book of your brother? No, sir, this is my father's book. Whose is this pen? Whose are those pens? This breeze is agreeable. Is not this breeze agreeable? Peter found my hat and that of the physician. The spoons of Lucy and those of Mary are of gold. Mary's spoons and Lucy's are of silver. James has not my book, but he has my sister's. The streets of London are wider than those of Madrid. The pronunciation of the French is not so easy as that of the Spanish. The city of Madrid is not so large as that of London. My beer is not so good as John's. My wine is not so good as James's. My house is lofty, but my father's is more lofty. Have you (vm) my pens or my father's? Has the hatter my hat, or my friend's? The hatter has not your hat, but he has your friend's. Has the baker my bread, or the inn-keeper's Have the shoemakers my shoes, or those of my brother? The shoemakers have not my shoes, but they have (tienen) my mother's. The inn-keeper's wine is not so good as the shoemaker's. Peter's shoes are as old as John's. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. The indefinite pronouns, or, more properly, the indefinite adjective pronouns, are-cada, each; uno, one; todo, every one, all nddie, nobody; alguien, somebody; ninguno, none; algu Esta Todo lo que, all that which, everything, whatever. echó todo lo que tenía, this-woman cast-in all that (or every-. thing) she-had. Quienquiera que, cualquiera que, whoever, whosoever, which |