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had.

Pluperfect.

Tienes

güenza. Tenéis una lámpara. ¿Quién tiene nueces? Hubiéra, habría, or hubiése tení-¿Quienes tienen peras? Mis hermanos tienen hierro. Tengo do, I would, should, or manteca. Tenéis espejos. Tenemos tenedores. might have had. cuchillos. ¿Qué espécie de botones tiene V. Tenemos Hubieras, habrías, or hubiéses marmol? ¿Qué espécie de azucar tiene el aldeano? Ella no tenido, thou wouldst, tiene marido. Tengo tres hijos y dos hijas. Tenéis tres shouldst, or mightst have hermanos. Tenemos una casa. Tenemos médias? ¿Tienes candeleros? Non tengo harina. No tenéis leche. La rosa tiene espinas. Vmd. tiene memória. María tiene mucha confianza en el juez. Tienen vms. sopa? Tenemos suceso. ¿Tenéis paciencia? El médico tenía confianza en la Española. Ella no tenía lámpara. Teníamos hambre. Yo tenía una rosa. Tenían dinero. Vmd. tenía una média. Teníais plata. Vms. tenían confianza en mi hermano. Tenías oro. tenía prudéncia. Tenía yo zapatos? ¿Teníamos botas? No tenían mesas ?

Hubiéra, habría, or hubiese tení-
do, he would, should, or
might have had.
Hubiéramos, habríamos, or hu-
biésemos tenido, we would,
should, or might have had.
Hubiérais, habríais, or hubiéseis
tenido, you would, should,
or might have had.
Hubiéran, habrían, or hubiésen
tenido, they would, should,
or might have had.
Second Future.

Si hubiére tenido, if I should

Si

have had.

hubiéres tenido, if thou

shouldst have had.

Si hubiére tenido, if he should
have had.

Si

have.

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hubiéremos tenido, if we

should have had.

hubiéreis tenido, if you
should have had.

hubieren tenido, if they

should have had.

In ordinary conversation, instead of the second person singular and plural,. md. with the third person singular, and vmds. with the third person plural of the verb, are used;

as,

Vmd. es, you are.

Vmds, son, you are.

Vmd. ha tenido, you have had. Vmds. han tenido, you have had. The pronoun You in English is used in both numbers and both genders without any change: in Spanish, vmd. (usted) has its plural vmds. (ustedes), but does not undergo any change to distinguish the gender to which it may be applied. Thus, What do you say, sir? ¿qué dice vmd., señor? What do you say, madam?¿qué dice vmd., señora? What do you say, gentlemen? ¿qué dicen vmás., señores? What do you say, ladies? ¿qué dicen vmds., señoras?

The phrases "to be hungry," "to be thirsty," "to be afraid," "to be cold," "to be hot," are rendered in Spanish by the verb tener (to have), and the corresponding noun; as "to have hunger," "to have thirst,' "to have fear,' ་ to have shame," "to have cold," "to have heat."

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Tened paz con todos los hombres. Ten paz con todos los hijos del médico. Tenga plumas. Tengan miel. Tengamos espejos. Tenga vmd. confianza en él.

Quiero que mi madre tenga harina. Es posible que tengas aceite. Probable es que tengan lámparas. Quiero que María tenga dinero. Quiero que yo tenga medias de seda. Probable es que tengamos algun mérito. Es posible que tengais hambre. Quiero que vms. tengan candeleros.

No era estraño que tuviesen peras. No era estraño que yo tuviese dinero. No era estraño que vmd. tuviese aceite. Era preciso que no tuviésemos azúcar. Si tuvieses botas, yo tendría zapatos. Juan tendría un tenedor. No creo que Pedro haya tenido manteca. ¡Ojalá yo no hubiera tenido estas lámparas! ¡ Ojalá no hubieran tenido esos libros! Si yo tuviere paciencia, tendré suceso. Si mis hijos tuvieren paciencia, tendrán suceso.

ENGLISH-SPANISH.

They-have pears. Have you (vmd.) apples? I-have apples. We-have pens. They-have pears. You (vms.) have chairs. She is hungry. I am thirsty. We are hot. They are ashamed. I am afraid. We are cold. I am ashamed. Thou art ashamed. Ye have a lamp. Who has nuts? Who have pears? My brothers have iron. I have butter. Ye have looking-glasses. We have forks. Thou hast knives. What sort of buttons have you (vmd.) Have-we marble? What sort of sugar has the villager? She has no husband. I have three sons and two daughters. Ye have three brothers. We have a house. Have we stockings? Hast thou candlesticks? I have no flour. Ye have no milk. The rose has thorns. You (vmd.) have a memory. Mary has much confidence in the judge. Have you (vms.) soup? We have success. Have ye patience?

woman.

The physician had (imperf.) confidence in the SpanishShe had (imperf.) no lamp. We were (imperf.) hungry. You (vms.) had (imperf.) confidence in my brother. Had (imperf.) we boots?

He had sugar yesterday. They had butter yesterday. I had buttons yesterday. We had a fever yesterday. Ye had chairs yesterday.

The shoemaker has had much care. I have had much iron. Thou hast had three daughters. We have had two sons. Mary has had a fever. She has had two husbands. They have had many cares. Ye have had much money. I had not had soup.

SPANISH-ENGLISH. ¿Tiene vmd, manzanas? Tengo manzanas. Tenemos pluTienen peras. Vms. tienen sillas. Ella tiene hambre. Tengo sed. Tenemos calor. Tienen vergüenza. Tengo I shall have a candlestick. She will have a fork. Theytemor. Tenemos frío. ¿Tengo yo vergüenza? Tienes ver-will have oil. You (emd.) will be hungry. Thou-wilt-be

mas.

I wish that my mother may-have flour. It-is possible that thou-mayest-have oil. It-is probable that they-may-have lamps. I-wish that Mary may-have money. I-wish that I may-have silk stockings. It-is probable that we-may have some merit. It-is possible that ye-may be hungry. I wish that you (vms.) may-have candlesticks.

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the sons of the physician. Let-him-have pens. Let-them

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have honey. Let-us-have looking-glasses. May you (vmd.) Conj. 1 Per. 2 Per. 3 Per. have confidence in him.

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It-was (era) not strange that they-should-have pears. Itwas not strange that I should have money. It-was not strange that you (vmd.) should have oil. It was necessary that we should not have sugar. If thou shouldst have boots, I wouldhave shoes. John would have a fork. I do not believe that Peter has (say, may-have) had butter. O-that I had not had these lamps! O-that they-had not had those books! If I have (say, shall have) patience, I shall have success. If my sons have (say, shall have) patience, they will have success. The student can now write all the persons of the tenses of the verb tener, as he has been already directed with regard to previous verbs.

OF THE CONJUGATIONS OF REGULAR VERBS,

It has been already mentioned that there are in Spanish three conjugations: the first comprehending verbs whose infinite ends in ar; the second, those ending in er; and the third, those ending in ir.

Every verb consists of two parts-the root and the termination, or the verb-root and the verb-ending. The verb-root consists of those letters which are not changed by inflection; as am in am-ár, am-o, am-aba, am-é, am-aré. Those letters, which may be changed by inflection, to show the different moods, tenses, persons, and numbers, constitute the verb-endings. Thus, in the preceding examples, the letters ár, o, dba, é, aré, are the verb-endings.

The following is a tabular view of the verb-endings of all the conjugations. The figures 1, 2, 3, denote the first, second, and third conjugations respectively :

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CHANGES IN THE VERB-ENDING.

in the gerund, third person singular and plural of the perfect A change takes place in the first letter of the verb-ending definite in the indicative, and in all the persons of the first future of the same mood, in the second or third conjugation, and third forms of the imperfect subjunctive, and in the first when the verb-root ends in a, e, or u. This change is merely the substitution of y for i; as, ca-ér, ca-yéndo, ca-yó, ca-yéron, ca-yére, ca-yése, etc.; cre-ér, cre-yéndo, cre-yó, cre-yéron, creyére, ere-yéres, etc.; argü-tr, argu-yéndo, argu-yó, etc.

the verb-ending does not take place; as, persegu-ir, persiguIf the last letter of the verb-root be a silent u, the change in indo, etc., and not pesigu-yéndo.

CHANGES IN THE VERB-ROOT.

In order that the last letter of the verb-root may retain, in all the tenses, the same sound which it has in the infinitive, a change of letters is sometimes required. This change can only take place when the verb-root end in c, g, gu, or qu. In such cases, there is changed, in the first conjugation,

e of the verb-root into qu before e of the verb-ending; as, toc-dr; tóqu-e.

g of the verb-root into gu before e of the verb-ending; as, pág-ar; pégu-es,

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g into j before a or o; as, converg-ér; convérj-a, convérj-o. In the third conjugation,

e of the verb-root into a before a or o; as, un-cír ; únz-as, únz-o.

Present.

Singular.

Plural.

Conj. 1 Per. 2 Per. 3 Per.

1 Per.

2 Per.

-0

-as

-a

-ámos

-0

-es

-e

-émos

-áis -éis

-en

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a oro; as, ung-ír; únj-a, únj-o. gu into g before a or o; as, consegu-ir; consig-an, consig-o. qu into c before a oro; as, delinqu-ir; delinc-as, delinc-o. The reason for these changes will at once be perceived by the student on his referring to what we have said on the "Sound of the Consonants:" thus c is sounded like k before a or u, and like th before e or i; while qu before e or i has the sound of k. If, then, in conjugating tocar (in the present tense of the subjunctive mood, for example), we retain the c in the verb-root, the pronunciation would be altered from the sound of k to that of th; thus, to-cár, pronounced to-kár, and tó-ce pronounced tó-thay. But by changing e into qu, the hard sound of e is retained; thus, tó-que, pronounced tó-kay. And so before a or o, by changing c, g, gu, and qu of the verb-root of the second and third conjugations into , j, 9, and e respectively; and g of the first conjugation into gu before e of the verb-ending.

The compound tenses are always formed by the different persons of the verb haber and the past participle of the verb to be conjugated.

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ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS.
EXCELSIOR.-The Latin Dictionary is completed in twenty-nine num-

-Ah! répondit Thécla, je tomberais bientôt malade d'ennui, et je serais pour toi-même une charge plutôt qu'une aide.3 Les caractères et les tempéraments varient comme les figures. Tu te plais à cette vie d'abnégation auprès de ce bon vieillard je t'admire et je voudrais t'imiter; mais je n'en ai ni la force ni le courage..... Une langueur mortelle m'a saisie .... l'air de la cour me rani-posed contribution.

mera.

Adieu donc, Thécla, reprit Eudoxie, adieu, et sois heueuse! Huit jours aprés, une grande dame vint chercherd Thecla; M. Offenheim, qu'Eudoxie avait préparé, embrassa la fugitive en lui demandant de lui écrire souvent. Puis, quand les chevaux partirent au galop, se retournant vers Eudoxie: Ma fille, fui dit-il, vous voilà seule chargée du pauvre vieillard's Dieu vous récompensera.

Il me récompense déjà, répliqua Eudoxie, puisque vous m'appelez votre fille."

Sur ses entrefaites, l'armée français, qui marchait de victoire en victoire, et qui marchait très vite, s'empara de la Saxe,10 mais à titre d'alliée. Napoléon respecta la couronne du vieux roi ; seulement, le pays fut occupé par nos troupes, précaution utile aux projets de l'Empereur sur l'Autriche et sur la Prusse. Les généraux, les officiers et les soldats furent répartis chez les habitants.12 Un général de la garde se présenta, lui et sa suite, avec un billet de logement, Il fallut bien le recevoir, et, au château d'Offenheim.13 encore, le recevoir bien. Le général souffrait d'une blessure récente ; c'était d'ailleurs un homme jeune encore, 16 d'une grande distinction, et aussi doux dans la vie ordinaire M. Offenheim l'admith qu'il était terrible dans les combats. à sa table, et le Français fut témoin des angéliques vertus d'Eudoxie, dont la grâce l'avait d'abord frappé. Au bout d'un mois de séjour, il fit à l'oncle l'aveu d'un sentiment qu'il cachait le mieux possible aux yeux de la nièce,18 et offrit son nom et sa main.

bers, and may be had, bound in neat cloth, 9s. 6d.

GEO. BARCLAY: The fifth volume of the P. E. was completed at the end
of last September, and may be had of any bookseller.
ROBERT HUDSON: We fear it will be impossible to find room for the pro-
N. W. N.: We cannot judge of the merits of a composition from merely
two or three sentences. The specimen is pretty good as far as it goes.
ECOLIER: The poetical version is a creditable attempt, but not without
faults.

Tav: For information on the subject of Euclid's twelfth axiom, see
"Cassell's Euclid," "Cassell's Self-examiner in Euclid," or our Lessons
It is impossible to define exactly how much classical
in Geometry.
knowledge a man should have before matriculating at Cambridge. He
should, at least, be able to read Xenophon, Homer, Livy, Virgil, and

Horace with tolerable ease. In mathematics he ought to be well ae-
quainted with arithmetic, algebra, Euclid, and trigonometry. Of course
the more he knows of both classics and mathematics, the better his
chance of a good degree. Consols are portions of the National Debt
consolidated at a certain rate of interest, i.e. the Government having,
at different times, borrowed money on various terms, put all the sums toge-
ther and agreed to pay the same interest for the whole.
any debt must vary with the probability of its payment, and the general
state of commerce, so that of the National Debt changes according to the
try. Hence the daily alterations in the prices of consols, shares and other
securities.

As the value of

circumstances which affect the condition of the Government and the coun

ADMIRER: The best books for beginning Hebrew are Arnold's First and
Second Hebrew Books.

UN AMI: The problem is impossible.

J. TETLOW: Weale has published a good table of Logarithms; Walton and Maberley a still better.

G. M. V.: Trigonometry is derived from rpés, three; ywvía, a corner or angle; and μérpov, a measure; and properly means the measuring of threecornered figures, or triangles. For definitions of adjacent angles, etc., see "Cassell's Euclid," or our Lessons in Geometry. We intend, if possible, to give a few lessons in Trigonometry. The other subject is uncertain.

LITERARY NOTICES.

COMPLETION OF CASSELL'S LATIN DICTIONARY.
Now ready, price 9s. 6d., handsomely bound in cloth,
CASSELL'S LATIN DICTIONARY.

BEARD, D.D., and C. BEARD, B.A.

Part I.-LATIN-ENGLISH, price 4s., in paper covers; 5s. cloth.
Part II.-ENGLISH-LATIN, price 4s., in paper covers; 5s. cloth.

Le général était dans la plus belle position de fortune et d'ambition,19 favori de l'Empereur et tenanti à une excellente famille d'Alsace....quasi Allemand par conséquent, ce qui In Two Parts:-1. Latin and English. 3. English and Latin: By J. R touchait beaucoup M. Offenheim. Le vieillard rajeunissait à cette espérance;20 l'idée de pouvoir confier, avant de mourir, sa chère Eudoxie à un époux si éminent par sa position, et qui paraissait si digne d'elle par le cœur,21 répandait sur la figure du vieillard et dans son humeur une teinte de joie inaccoutumée, dont Eudoxie jouissait, sans pouvoir se l'expliquer.

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CASSELL'S GERMAN PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY.
In Two Parts:-1. German and English; 2. English and German. In
one large handsome Octavo Volume, price 98. cloth. The German-English
Division, price 58. in paper covers, or 5s. 6d. neat cloth; the English-
German Division, 3s. 6d. paper covers, or strongly bound in cloth, 48.

CASSELL'S LESSONS IN GERMAN. Parts I. and II.-Price 2s. each in
paper covers, or 2s. 6d. in cloth. Two Parts bound together, price 4s. 64.
CASSELL'S ECLECTIC GERMAN READER: containing choice Selections
Price 28. paper
from the best German Authors, in Prose and Verse.
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CASSELL'S LESSONS IN GERMAN PRONUNCIATION: Consisting of easy
Extracts from German Writers. Price ls. paper covers, or is. 6d. cloth.
A Key to the above Lessons is now ready.

.

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In this experiment, as the electro-dynamical cylinder takes the same direction as a magnetised needle, the extremity pointing to the north is called the south pole, as in magnets, and that which points to the south is called the north pole.

Mutual Action of Magnets and Electro-dynamical Cylinders.We have already seen that electro-dynamical cylinders exert mutual attraction and repulsion upon each other. The same phenomena take place between magnets and electro-dynamical cylinders. In fact, if you bring one of the poles of a strongly magnetised bar near a moveable electro-dynamical cylinder traversed by a current, there will be attraction or repulsion according as the poles of the magnet and the electrodynamical cylinder are of a contrary or the same name. Conversely, the same phenomenon is exhibited if you bring an electro-dynamical cylinder traversed by a current and held in the hand, near a moveable magnetised needle. Consequently, the law of attraction and repulsion is applicable to the mutual action of electro-dynamical cylinders and magnets.

Ampère's Theory on Magnetism.-Guided by the analogy which exists between electro-dynamical cylinders and magnets, Ampère propounded an ingenious theory, by means of which magnetic phenomena are brought within the province of electro-dynamics.

Instead of attributing magnetic phenomena to the existence of two fluids, Ampère attributed them to circular voltaic currents around the molecules of magnetic substances.

When these substances are not magnetised, the molecular currents proceed in all directions, and the resultant of their electro-dynamic actions is nothing.

In magnets, on the contrary, the molecular currents being all parallel and in the same direction, their concurring actions have a resultant equivalent to a single current moving circularly on the surface of the magnet, as represented in fig. 451. Hence magnets are merely electro-dynamical cylinders, and magnetic attraction and repulsion nothing but consequences of the action of currents upon currents.

ΤΟΣ. Τ.

Lastly, in this theory, to explain terrestrial magnetic effects, electric currents are supposed to be incessantly circulating about the globe from east to west, perpendicularly to the magnetic meridian. It is these currents which direct the movements of the needle in the compass, and render iron minerals magnetic. With regard to their nature, it is supposed that Fig. 451.

they are owing to the variations in the temperature resulting from the successive action of the sun upon different parts of the globe's surface from east to west.

Magnetisation by Currents.-Judging from the influence exerted by currents upon magnets in deflecting the south pole to the left and the north pole to the right, it is natural to conclude that, in acting upon magnetic substances in their natural state, currents must have a tendency to separate the two magnetic fluids. And in fact it is found that, on plunging a wire traversed by a current into iron filings, they are attracted by it as long as the current lasts, but fall away as soon as it ceases, while every other non-magnetic metal exerts no influence on the iron filings.

The action of currents on magnetic substances is especially evident when we wind a copper wire covered with silk round a glass tube, as Ampère did, and put a non-magnetised bar of steel in the tube. It is found that the bar is strongly magnetised if a current be passed through the wire for a very short time.

If, instead of passing a current from the battery along the wire we pass the discharge of a Leyden jar along it, by connecting one of the ends with the external armature and the other with the internal, we shall still find the bar magnetised. We may, therefore, communicate the magnetic property either by voltaic electricity, or the electricity of a machine.

In the above experiment, the wire may be wound upwards from left to right, thus forming what is termed a right helix, fig. 452, or downwards from right to left, so as to form what

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Fig. 452.

is called a left helix, fig. 453. In the right helix the north pole of the bar is always at the extremity at which the current enters; the contrary is the case with the left helix.

Fig. 453.

The nature of the tube round which the wire is wound is not without importance. Wood and glass are productive of no effect; but a thick copper cylinder is capable of completely destroying the effect of the current. It is the same with iron, silver and tin.

Electro-Magnets are bars of soft iron which are magnetised under the influence of a voltaic current, but only temporarily, because as the coercive influence of soft iron is inappreciable, the two magnetic fluids are neutralised as soon as the current ceases to pass along the wire. If, however, the iron is not perfectly pure, it retains more or less evident traces of magnetisation. Electro-magnets are made in the shape of a horse-shoe, as seen in fig. 454, and a copper wire covered with silk is wound a great many times round the two branches, so as to form two bobbins, A and B. The wire should be wound in the same direction round both branches, that the two ends of the bar may be two poles of contrary name, the south pole being at the entrance of the current and the north pole at its point of departure.

Electro-magnets are very powerful. Their force depends on the size of the iron bar, the strength of the current, and the 145

634

length and thickness of the wire. If a soft iron lifter-or armature, as it is technically called-be placed at the two ends of the branches of the horse-shoe magnet, it may be made to support very heavy weights, varying according to the size of the electro-magnet.

We shall hereafter speak of the important uses to which the electro-magnet is applied in connection with the electric telegraph, electro-magnetic moving powers, and the properties of powerful magnets. Meanwhile we proceed to give some account of the discoveries and experiments which have been made with reference to electro-magnets,

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Our knowledge of electro-magnetic induction was next extended by the researches of Professor Henry, an American philosopher, who found that the principle of the galvanic multiplier may be applied to the development of great magnetic power in soft iron, by a small galvanic battery; and employed it for the purpose of studying the inductive action of electrical currents upon considerable masses of iron, and of investigating the relative power of currents of different quantity and intensity, as well as of the same current when transmitted through insulated conducting helixes of various lengths, and opposing different degrees of resistance to its motion.

The apparatus employed by Professor Henry somewhat resembled that represented in fig. 454. It consisted of a bar of iron 2 inches square and 20 inches long, bent in the form

of the letter U, or of a horse-shoe, 9 inches high, and
flat one surface for an arma-
weighing 21 lbs, avoirdupois. A piece of iron from the same
bar weighing 7 lbs.
ture or lifter; and the extremities of the legs of the horse-shoe
were truly ground to the surface of the armature.
Round the horse-shoe 540 feet of copper wire, well covered
with waxed thread to secure insulation, were wound in 9 coils
of 60 feet each. These coils were not wrapped continuously
round the whole length of the bar, but each strand occupied
about two inches, and was wound several times backwards
and forwards over itself; and the several ends of the wire
were left projecting, and numbered, so that the first and last
of each strand could be readily distinguished.

In this marner a large experimental magnet was formed, with which several combinations of wire could be made by merely uniting the different projecting ends. Thus, if the last end of the first wire be soldered to the first end of the second, and so on through all the series, the whole will constitute a continuous coil of one long wire; and by soldering different ends, a double coil of half the length, or a triple coil of onethird the length, etc., might be easily formed. The horse-shoe was suspended in a strong wooden frame, and an iron bar was fixed below, so as to act as a lever of the second order, graduated and counterpoised, so that the weights supported might be estimated by a sliding weight, as in the common steel-yard.

With a single battery (i. e. a battery with one couple), consisting of two concentric copper cylinders and one of zinc between them, excited by immersion in a cup of diluted acid, and exposing a zine surface of two-fifths of a square foot, the following results were obtained:

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From the above experiments, it is evident that a very small simple battery with one couple is capable of producing great magnetic effects, if the spirals of the inducing electro-chemical cylinder are numerous, and the resistance to the passage of the current is not very great.

The effect of varying the length of the conducting wires and the intensity of the current, was satisfactorily shown by attached to the small cylindrical battery described above, the following experiments. Six wires, each thirty feet long, caused the horse-shoe bar to lift 375 lbs.; and when the same. wires were united so as to form three coils of sixty feet, it supported 290 lbs. Hence it appears, that, with a simple of double the length. galvanic battery, six short wires are more powerful than three

The two wires which had sustained 200 lbs. when separated, being united so as to form a single coil of 120 feet, lifted only 60 lbs. But when a small compound battery of two elements, exposing exactly the same zine surface as the single battery used in the last experiment, was substituted for it, the weight lifted was 110 lbs., or nearly double.

Also a small horse-shoe, one-quarter of an inch in diameter, wound with eight feet of copper wire, when attached directly to a simple battery with a zinc plate four inches by seven, sur rounded with copper, lifted 4 lbs.; but when the current passed through a copper wire 1,060 feet long and 045 of an inch in diameter, it supported only half an ounce; through 530 feet, or half the same length of wire, it lifted two ounces. The whole length of the wire being then attached to a small compound battery (i.e. a battery with several couples) containing 25 double plates, and presenting exactly the same extent of zinc surface to the action of the acid as the simple battery used in the last experiments, the weight lifted was eight ounces;

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