Pluperfect. Tienes güenza. Tenéis una lámpara. ¿Quién tiene nueces? Hubiéra, habría, or hubiése tení-¿Quienes tienen peras? Mis hermanos tienen hierro. Tengo do, I would, should, or manteca. Tenéis espejos. Tenemos tenedores. might have had. cuchillos. ¿Qué espécie de botones tiene V.? ¿Tenemos Hubieras, habrías, or hubiéses marmol? Qué espécie de azucar tiene el aldeano? Ella no tenido, thou wouldst, tiene marido. Tengo tres hijos y dos hijas. Tenéis tres shouldst, or mightst have hermanos. Tenemos una casa. Tenemos médias? ¿Tienes had. candeleros? Non tengo harina. No tenéis leche. La rosa Hubiéra, habría, or hubiese tení- tiene espinas. Vmd. tiene memória. María tiene mucha condo, he would, should, or fianza en el juez. Tienen vms. sopa? Tenemos suceso. might have had. ¿Tenéis paciencia? El médico tenía confianza en la Española. Hubiéramos, habríamos, or hu- Ella no tenía lámpara. Teníamos hambre. Yo tenia una biésemos tenido, we would, rosa. Tenían dinero. Vmd. tenía una média. Teníais plata. should, or might have had. Vms. tenían confianza en mi hermano. Tenías oro. Ella Hubiérais, habríais, or hubiéseis tenía prudéncia. ¿Tenía yo zapatos? ¿Teníamos botas? tenido, you would, should, No tenían mesas? or might have had. Hubiéran, habrían, or hubiésen tenido, they would, should, or might have had. have. if we should have had. hubieren tenido, if they should have had. Vmd. es, you are. Vmd. ha tenido, you have had. Vmds, son, you are. Vmds. han tenido, you have had. The pronoun You in English is used in both numbers and both genders without any change: in Spanish, vmd. (usted) has its plural vmds. (ustedes), but does not undergo any change to distinguish the gender to which it may be applied. Thus, What do you say, sir? ¿qué dice vmd., señor? What do you say, madam? ¿qué dice vmd., señora? ___What do you say, gentlemen? ¿qué dicen vmás., señores? What do you say, ladies? ¿qué dicen vmds., señoras ? The phrases "to be hungry," "to be thirsty," "to be afraid," "to be cold," "to be hot," are rendered in Spanish by the verb tener (to have), and the corresponding noun; as "to have hunger," to have thirst," "to have fear,' to have shame,' "to have cold," "to have heat." 64 Memória, memory. Ayer, yesterday. MODEL SENTENCES. ," Esa muger no tiene vergüenza, | Juan tiene calor, John has heat have money. SPANISH-ENGLISH. Tuvo azúcar ayer. Tuvieron manteca ayer. Tuve_botones ayer. Ella tuvo harina ayer. Tuvisteis dinero. Tuvimos lámparas. Tuviste candeleros. No tuvieron espèjos. ¿Tuviste una pluma? Tuve una casa. Tuvimos medias de seda ayer. Tuvo sillas ayer. hierro. Has tenido tres hijas. Hemos tenido dos hijos. Tendré una candelero. Ella tendrá un tenedor. Tendrán aceite. Vmd. tendrá hambre. Tendrás calor. Tendremos sed. Tendrán vergüenza. Tendréis temor. Tendré frío. Habré tenido dinero. Tened paz con todos los hombres. Ten paz con todos los hijos del médico. Tenga plumas. Tengan miel. Tengamos espejos. Tenga vmd. confianza en él. Quiero que mi madre tenga harina. Es posible que tengas aceite. Probable es que tengan lámparas. Quiero que María tenga dinero. Quiero que yo tenga medias de seda. Probable es que tengamos algun mérito. Es posible que tengais hambre. Quiero que vms, tengan candeleros. No era estraño que tuviesen peras. No era estraño que yo tuviese dinero. No era estraño que vmd. tuviese aceite. Era preciso que no tuviésemos azúcar. Si tuvieses botas, yo tendría zapatos. Juan tendría un tenedor. No creo que Pedro haya tenido manteca. ¡Ojalá yo no hubiera tenido estas lámparas! ¡Ojalá no hubieran tenido esos libros! Si yo tuviere paciencia, tendré suceso. Si mis hijos tuvieren paciencia, tendrán suceso. ENGLISH-SPANISH. They-have pears. Have you (vmd.) apples? I-have apples. We-have pens. They-have pears. You (vms.) have chairs. She is hungry. I am thirsty. We are hot. They are ashamed. I am afraid. We are cold. I am ashamed. Thou art ashamed. Ye have a lamp. Who has nuts? Who have pears? My brothers have iron. I have butter. Ye have looking-glasses. We have forks. Thou hast knives. What sort of buttons have you (vmd.)? Have-we marble? What sort of sugar has the villager? She has no husband. I have three sons and two daughters. Ye have three brothers. We have a house. Have we stockings? Hast thou candlesticks? I have no flour. Ye have no milk. The rose has thorns. You (vmd.) have a memory. Mary has much confidence in the judge. Have you (vms.) soup? We have success. Have ye patience? woman. The physician had (imperf.) confidence in the SpanishShe had (imperf.) no lamp. We were (imperf.) hungry. You (ems.) had (imperf.) confidence in my brother. Had (imperf.) we boots? He had sugar yesterday. They had butter yesterday. I had buttons yesterday. We had a fever yesterday. Ye had chairs yesterday. The shoemaker has had much care. I have had much iron. Thou hast had three daughters. We have had two sons. Mary has had a fever. She has had two husbands. They ¿Tiene vmd, manzanas? Tengo manzanas. Tenemos plu-have had many cares. Ye have had much money. I had not mas. Tienen peras. Vms. tienen sillas. Ella tiene hambre, had soup. Tengo sed. Tenemos calor. Tienen vergüenza. Tengo I shall have a candlestick. She will have a fork. Theytemor. Tenemos frío. Tengo yo vergüenza? Tienes ver-will have oil. You (emd.) will be hungry. Thou-wilt-be I wish that my mother may-have flour. It-is possible that thou-mayest-have oil. It-is probable that they-may-have lamps. I-wish that Mary may-have money. I-wish that I may-have silk stockings. It is probable that we-may have some merit. It-is possible that ye-may be hungry. I wish that you (vms.) may-have candlesticks. hot. We shall-be thirsty. be afraid. I shall be cold. Have-ye peace with all men. Have-thou peace with all SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. the sons of the physician. Let-him-have pens. Let-them- Singular. 1. -e -e -émos It-was (era) not strange that they-should-have pears. Itwas not strange that I should have money. It-was not strange that you (vmd.) should have oil. It was necessary that we should not have sugar. If thou shouldst have boots, I wouldhave shoes. John would have a fork. I do not believe that Peter has (say, may-have) had butter. O-that I had not had these lamps! O-that they-had not had those books! If I have (say, shall have) patience, I shall have success. If my sons have (say, shall have) patience, they will have success. The student can now write all the persons of the tenses of the verb tener, as he has been already directed with regard to previous verbs. OF THE CONJUGATIONS OF REGULAR VERBS. It has been already mentioned that there are in Spanish three conjugations: the first comprehending verbs whose infinite ends in ar; the second, those ending in er; and the third, those ending in ir. Every verb consists of two parts-the root and the termination, or the verb-root and the verb-ending. The verb-root consists of those letters which are not changed by inflection; as am in am-ár, am-o, am-aba, am-é, am-aré. Those letters, which may be changed by inflection, to show the different moods, tenses, persons, and numbers, constitute the verb-endings. Thus, in the preceding examples, the letters ár, o, ába, é, aré, are the verb-endings. The following is a tabular view of the verb-endings of all the conjugations. The figures 1, 2, 3, denote the first, second, and third conjugations respectively: -an CHANGES IN THE VERB-ENDING. in the gerund, third person singular and plural of the perfect A change takes place in the first letter of the verb-ending definite in the indicative, and in all the persons of the first future of the same mood, in the second or third conjugation, and third forms of the imperfect subjunctive, and in the first when the verb-root ends in a, e, or u. This change is merely the substitution of y for i; as, ca-ér, ca-yéndo, ca-yó, ca-yéron, ca-yére, ca-yése, etc.; cre-ér, cre-yéndo, cre-yó, cre-yéron, creyére, cre-yéres, etc.; argü-ir, argu-yéndo, argu-yó, etc. the verb-ending does not take place; as, perseguir, persiguIf the last letter of the verb-root be a silent u, the change in iéndo, etc., and not pesigu-yéndo. CHANGES IN THE VERB-ROOT. In order that the last letter of the verb-root may retain, in all the tenses, the same sound which it has in the infinitive, a change of letters is sometimes required. This change can only take place when the verb-root end in c, g, gu, or qu. In such cases, there is changed, in the first conjugation, e of the verb-root into qu before e of the verb-ending; as, toc-dr; tóqu-e. g of the verb-root into gu before e of the verb-ending; as, pág-ar; pégu-es, In the second conjugation, e of the verb-root into before a or o; as, venc-er; vénz-as, vénz-o. g into j before a or o; as, converg-ér; convérj-a, convérj-o. In the third conjugation, Present. Plural. Conj. 1 Per. 2 Per. 3 Per. 1 Per. 1. -0 -as -a -ámos 2 Per. 3 Per. 2. -0 -es -e e of the verb-root into z before a or o; as, un-cír ; únz-as, únz-o. a oro; as, ung-ír; únj-a, únj-o. gu into g before a oro; as, consegu-ir; consig-an, consig-o. qu into c before a oro; as, delinqu-ir; delinc-as, delinc-o. The reason for these changes will at once be perceived by the student on his referring to what we have said on the "Sound of the Consonants:" thus c is sounded like k before a or u, and like th before e or i; while qu before e or i has the sound of k. If, then, in conjugating tocar (in the present tense of the subjunctive mood, for example), we retain the c in the verb-root, the pronunciation would be altered from the sound of k to that of th; thus, to-cár, pronounced -arán to-kár, and tó-ce pronounced tó-thay. But by changing e into -erán qu, the hard sound of c is retained; thus, tó-que, pronounced -irán tó-kay. And so before a or o, by changing e, g, gu, and qu of the verb-root of the second and third conjugations into z, j, g, and c respectively; and g of the first conjugation into gu before e of the verb-ending. NOTES AND REFERENCES.-α. vas, will; or literally, are going; from aller; L. part ii., p 76.-b. charge, burden.-c. from vouloir; L. part ii., p. 110.-d. vint chercher, came to take.—e. vous voilà seule, you are alone.-f. L. S. 92, R. 3.-g. repartis chez, distributed among.-h. from admettre; L. part ii., p. 76.-i. tenant, belonging. C'est juste!' répliqua Eudoxie, en rougissant pour sa sœur de cette interprétation; mais, ajouta-t-elle, tu vas donc me laisser seule, chargée d'une si grande responsabilité ?2.... -Ah! répondit Thécla, je tomberais bientôt malade d'ennui, et je serais pour toi-même une charge plutôt qu'une aide. Les caractères et les tempéraments varient comme les figures. Tu te plais à cette vie d'abnégation auprès de ce bon vieillard je t'admire et je voudrais t'imi- GEO. BARCLAY: The fifth volume of the P. E. was completed at the end ter; mais je n'en ai ni la force ni le courage..... Une langueur mortelle m'a saisie .... l'air de la cour me rani-posed contribution. mera. Adieu donc, Thécla, reprit Eudoxie, adieu, et sois heueuse! Huit jours aprés, une grande dame vint chercherd Thecla; M. Offenheim, qu'Eudoxie avait préparé, embrassa la fugitive en lui demandant de lui écrire souvent. Puis, quand les chevaux partirent au galop, se retournant vers Eudoxie: Ma fille, lui dit-il, vous voilà seule chargée du pauvre vieillards Dieu vous récompensera. Il me récompense déjà, répliqua Eudoxie, puisque vous m'appelez votre fille." ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. of last September, and may be had of any bookseller. Tav: For information on the subject of Euclid's twelfth axiom, see "Cassell's Euclid," "Cassell's Self-examiner in Euclid," or our Lessons in Geometry. It is impossible to define exactly how much classical at different times, borrowed money on various terms, put all the sums toge ADMIRER: The best books for beginning Hebrew are Arnold's First and Second Hebrew Books. UN AMI: The problem is impossible. J. TETLOW: Weale has published a good table of Logarithms; Walton and Maberley a still better. G. M. V.: Trigonometry is derived from Tpés, three; yovia, a corner or Sur ses entrefaites, l'armée français, qui marchait de victoire en victoire, et qui marchait très vite, s'empara de la Saxe,10 mais à titre d'alliée. Napoléon respecta la couronne du vieux roi ; seulement, le pays fut occupé par nos troupes, précaution utile aux projets de l'Empereur sur l'Autriche et sur la Prusse. Les généraux, les officiers et les soldats furent répartis chez les habitants.12 Un général de la garde se présenta, lui et sa suite, avec un billet de logement, au château d'Offenheim.13 Il fallut bien le recevoir, et, encore, le recevoir bien. Le général souffrait d'une bles-angle; and uérpov, a measure; and properly means the measuring of threesure récente ;13 c'était d'ailleurs un homme jeune encore, 16 d'une grande distinction, et aussi doux dans la vie ordinaire qu'il était terrible dans les combats. M. Offenheim l'admith à sa table,17 et le Français fut témoin des angéliques vertus d'Eudoxie, dont la grâce l'avait d'abord frappé. Au bout d'un mois de séjour, il fit à l'oncle l'aveu d'un sentiment qu'il cachait le mieux possible aux yeux de la nièce,18 et offrit son nom et sa main. 19 cornered figures, or triangles. For definitions of adjacent angles, etc., see "Cassell's Euclid," or our Lessons in Geometry. We intend, if possible, to give a few lessons in Trigonometry. The other subject is uncertain. LITERARY NOTICES. COMPLETION OF CASSELL'S LATIN DICTIONARY. BEARD, D.D., and C. BEARD, B.A. Part I.-LATIN-ENGLISH, price 48., in paper covers; 5s. cloth. Le général était dans la plus belle position de fortune et d'ambition, favori de l'Empereur et tenanti à une excellente famille d'Alsace....quasi Allemand par conséquent, ce qui In Two Parts:-1. Latin and English. 3. English and Latin. By J. R touchait beaucoup M. Offenheim. Le vieillard rajeunissait à cette espérance;20 l'idée de pouvoir confier, avant de mourir, sa chère Eudoxie à un époux si éminent par sa position, et qui paraissait si digne d'elle par le cœur,21 répandait sur la figure du vieillard et dans son humeur une teinte de joie inaccoutumée, dont Eudoxie jouissait, sans pouvoir se l'expliquer. CASSELL'S GERMAN PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY. CASSELL'S LESSONS IN GERMAN. Parts I. and II.-Price 2s. each in ON PHYSICS, OR NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. No. LXVII. (Continued from page 623.) ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. Directive Action of the Earth upon Electro-dynamical Cylinders. -If we put the suspending electro-dynamical cylinder represented in fig. 448, p. 622, upon the cups A and B of the two columned apparatus in fig. 450, and place it at first out of the Fig. 450. magnetic meridian, we shall observe that directly a sufficiently powerful current passes along the electro-dynamical cylinder, the latter begins to move, and stops in such a position that its axis is parallel to the declination needle. Further, in the lower part of the circular currents which compose the cylinder, the current flows from east to west. The directive action of the earth upon electro-dynamical cylinders is therefore the consequence of that which it exerts upon circular currents. In this experiment, as the electro-dynamical cylinder takes the same direction as a magnetised needle, the extremity pointing to the north is called the south pole, as in magnets, and that which points to the south is called the north pole. Mutual Action of Magnets and Electro-dynamical Cylinders.We have already seen that electro-dynamical cylinders exert mutual attraction and repulsion upon each other. The same phenomena take place between magnets and electro-dynamical cylinders. In fact, if you bring one of the poles of a strongly magnetised bar near a moveable electro-dynamical cylinder traversed by a current, there will be attraction or repulsion according as the poles of the magnet and the electrodynamical cylinder are of a contrary or the same name. Conversely, the same phenomenon is exhibited if you bring an electro-dynamical cylinder traversed by a current and held in the hand, near a moveable magnetised needle. Consequently, the law of attraction and repulsion is applicable to the mutual action of electro-dynamical cylinders and magnets. Ampère's Theory on Magnetism.-Guided by the analogy which exists between electro-dynamical cylinders and magnets, Ampère propounded an ingenious theory, by means of which magnetic phenomena are brought within the province of electro-dynamics. Instead of attributing magnetic phenomena to the existence of two fluids, Ampère attributed them to circular voltaic currents around the molecules of magnetic substances. When these substances are not magnetised, the molecular currents proceed in all directions, and the resultant of their electro-dynamic actions is nothing. In magnets, on the contrary, the molecular currents being all parallel and in the same direction, their concurring actions have a resultant equivalent to a single current moving circularly on the surface of the magnet, as represented in fig. 451. Hence magnets are merely electro-dynamical cylinders, and magnetic attraction and repulsion nothing but consequences of the action of currents upon currents. ΤΟΣ. Τ. 683 Lastly, in this theory, to explain terrestrial magnetic effects, electric currents are supposed to be incessantly circulating about the globe from east to west, perpendicularly to the magnetic meridian. It is these currents which direct the movements of the needle in the compass, and render iron minerals magnetic. With regard to their nature, it is supposed that Fig. 451. they are owing to the variations in the temperature resulting from the successive action of the sun upon different parts of the globe's surface from east to west. Magnetisation by Currents.-Judging from the influence exerted by currents upon magnets in deflecting the south pole to the left and the north pole to the right, it is natural to conclude that, in acting upon magnetic substances in their natural state, currents must have a tendency to separate the two magnetic fluids. And in fact it is found that, on plunging a wire traversed by a current into iron filings, they are attracted by it as long as the current lasts, but fall away as soon as it ceases, while every other non-magnetic metal exerts no influence on the iron filings. The action of currents on magnetic substances is especially evident when we wind a copper wire covered with silk round a glass tube, as Ampère did, and put a non-magnetised bar of steel in the tube. It is found that the bar is strongly magnetised if a current be passed through the wire for a very short time. If, instead of passing a current from the battery along the necting one of the ends with the external armature and the wire we pass the discharge of a Leyden jar along it, by conother with the internal, we shall still find the bar magnetised. We may, therefore, communicate the magnetic property either by voltaic electricity, or the electricity of a machine. from left to right, thus forming what is termed a right helix, In the above experiment, the wire may be wound upwards fig. 452, or downwards from right to left, so as to form what Fig. 452. is called a left helix, fig. 453. In the right helix the north pole of the bar is always at the extremity at which the current enters; the contrary is the case with the left helix. Fig. 453. The nature of the tube round which the wire is wound is not without importance. Wood and glass are productive of no effect; but a thick copper cylinder is capable of completely destroying the effect of the current. It is the same with iron, silver and tin. Electro-Magnets are bars of soft iron which are magnetised under the influence of a voltaic current, but only temporarily, because as the coercive influence of soft iron is inappreciable, the two magnetic fluids are neutralised as soon as the current ceases to pass along the wire. If, however, the iron is not perfectly pure, it retains more or less evident traces of magnetisation. Electro-magnets are made in the shape of a horse-shoe, as seen in fig. 454, and a copper wire covered with silk is wound a great many times round the two branches, so as to form two bobbins, A and B. The wire should be wound in the same direction round both branches, that the two ends of the bar may be two poles of contrary name, the south pole being at the entrance of the current and the north pole at its point of departure. Electro-magnets are very powerful. Their force depends on the size of the iron bar, the strength of the current, and the 145 length and thickness of the wire. If a soft iron lifter-or armature, as it is technically called-be placed at the two ends of the branches of the horse-shoe magnet, it may be made to support very heavy weights, varying according to the size of the electro-magnet, We shall hereafter speak of the important uses to which the electro-magnet is applied in connection with the electric telegraph, electro-magnetic moving powers, and the properties of powerful magnets. Meanwhile we proceed to give some account of the discoveries and experiments which have been made with reference to electro-magnets, Fig. 454. The important discovery of magnetic induction by electrical currents was made by M. Arago, who was led to it by observing that iron filings are attracted by the conducting wire of a galvanic battery. That this property is magnetic, and not simply electrical, was shown by the fact that the filings of other metals are not similarly attracted, and also by permanently magnetising steel needles enveloped in the spirals of electro-dynamical cylinders. And that the phenomenon is one of induction, was proved by the fact that the filings and needles acquire magnetic properties without contact with, and even at a distance from, the conducting wire. Nearly at the same time that M. Arago was engaged in making these beautiful and valuable experiments in France, Sir H. Davy was occupied with similar investigations in England; which resulted in the independent discovery of the same facts by each of those distinguished philosophers. Mr. Sturgeon substituted for the steel needles used by Arago and Davy, pieces of soft iron wire wrapped in spirals of copper, and found that they were rendered intensely mag netic. Our knowledge of electro-magnetic induction was next extended by the researches of Professor Henry, an American philosopher, who found that the principle of the galvanic multiplier may be applied to the development of great magnetic power in soft iron, by a small galvanic battery; and employed it for the purpose of studying the inductive action of electrical currents upon considerable masses of iron, and of investigating the relative power of currents of different quantity and intensity, as well as of the same current when transmitted through insulated conducting helixes of various lengths, and opposing different degrees of resistance to its motion. The apparatus employed by Professor Henry somewhat resembled that represented in fig. 454. It consisted of a bar of iron 2 inches square and 20 inches long, bent in the form of the letter U, or of a horse-shoe, 94 inches high, and weighing 21 lbs. avoirdupois. A piece of iron from the same bar weighing 7 lbs. was filed flat on one surface for an armature or lifter; and the extremities of the legs of the horse-shoe were truly ground to the surface of the armature. Round the horse-shoe 540 feet of copper wire, well covered with waxed thread to secure insulation, were wound in 9 coils of 60 feet each. These coils were not wrapped continuously round the whole length of the bar, but each strand occupied about two inches, and was wound several times backwards and forwards over itself; and the several ends of the wire were left projecting, and numbered, so that the first and last of each strand could be readily distinguished. In this marner a large experimental magnet was formed, with which several combinations of wire could be made by merely uniting the different projecting ends. Thus, if the last end of the first wire be soldered to the first end of the second, and so on through all the series, the whole will constitute a continuous coil of one long wire; and by soldering different ends, a double coil of half the length, or a triple coil of onethird the length, etc., might be easily formed. The horse-shoe was suspended in a strong wooden frame, and an iron bar was fixed below, so as to act as a lever of the second order, graduated and counterpoised, so that the weights supported might be estimated by a sliding weight, as in the common steel-yard. With a single battery (i. e. a battery with one couple), consisting of two concentric copper cylinders and one of zinc between them, excited by immersion in a cup of diluted acid, and exposing a zine surface of two-fifths of a square foot, the following results were obtained : From the above experiments, it is evident that a very small simple battery with one couple is capable of producing great magnetic effects, if the spirals of the inducing electro-chemical cylinder are numerous, and the resistance to the passage of the current is not very great. The effect of varying the length of the conducting wires and the intensity of the current, was satisfactorily shown by the following experiments. Six wires, each thirty feet long, attached to the small cylindrical battery described above, caused the horse-shoe bar to lift 375 lbs.; and when the same wires were united so as to form three coils of sixty feet, it supported 290 lbs. Hence it appears, that, with a simple galvanic battery, six short wires are more powerful than three of double the length. The two wires which had sustained 200 lbs. when separated, being united so as to form a single coil of 120 feet, lifted only 60 lbs. But when a small compound battery of two elements, exposing exactly the same zine surface as the single battery used in the last experiment, was substituted for it, the weight lifted was 110 lbs., or nearly double. Also a small horse-shoe, one-quarter of an inch in diameter, wound with eight feet of copper wire, when attached directly to a simple battery with a zinc plate four inches by seven, surrounded with copper, lifted 4 lbs.; but when the current passed through a copper wire 1,060 feet long and 045 of an inch in diameter, it supported only half an ounce; through, 530 feet, or half the same length of wire, it lifted two ounces. The whole length of the wire being then attached to a small compound battery (i.e. a battery with several couples) containing 25 double plates, and presenting exactly the same extent of zinc surface to the action of the acid as the simple battery used in the last experiments, the weight lifted was eight ounces; |