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Of Quality and Manner.
Giustamente, justly

A cavalcióni, a straddle
A cavallo, on horseback
A piedi, on foot
Inginocchioni, upon one's knees
A poco a poco, little by little
Di mála voglia, unwillingly
A'lla stordita, at random
Temerariamente, rashly
Béne, well

Male, badly

Carpone, upon all fours
Bel bello, adagio, softly, gently
Per forza, mal volentieri, cólle
cattiva, against one's will

A caso, by chance
A mente, by heart

Con frétta, hastily

Aspron battuto, full speed

Con arte, artfully

A tentine, groping along
All' indietro, backward
Con ragione, rightly

Colle buone, con tutto il cuore, a buon grúdo, per amore, willingly

A briglia sciolta, at full speed A caso pensato, wilfully

A vista, in sight

Da párte a párte, da banda a banda, through

In dubbio, in doubt

In sospeso, in suspense

Da sénno, da dovvéro, daddovvé

ro, in good earnest Fuor di luogo, unseasonably A dirótte lagrime, bitterly A prova, in emulation Smisuratamente, beyond mea

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Si in verità, yes, indeed
Non v'è dubbio, non v' ha dub-Proscribir,
bio, there is no doubt
Proveer, R
In coscienza, on my conscience
Senza dubbio, without doubt
Senza fallo, without fail

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Of Comparison.

Più, more
Méno, less
Come, as or like
Siccome, as

A guisa, a módo, like
Cosi, so or thus

Via più, viappiù. vie più,

Romper, R

resuelto. revisto. revuelto. roto. satisfecho. sobrepuesto. supuesto.

supreso.

traspuesto.

visto.

vuelto.

Some participles are used sometimes as verbal adjectives; thus mirado means, as a participle, beheld, and as an adjective, considerate; leido means, as a participle, read, and as an adjective, book-learned; partido means divided, and liberal; sabido means known, and well-informed. In all such cases the student will find the word, in his Spanish dictionary, defined as an adjective. He will be able, from the sense of the context, to determine whether to employ it as a participle or adjective, just as in English he would know which is the adjective and which the participle in the sentences, a known event," and "a person whom he has known."

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Some changes have taken place in the verb-ending of the second person plural in all the tenses and conjugations. This anciently had its termination in des; as, amades, amábades, amástedes, amarédes, amédes, etc., for amais, amabais, amasteis, amaréis, ameis.

Soy, doy, voy, sois, caigo, oigo, valgo, cupo, hubo, puso, etc., were formerly so, do, vo, sódes, cayo, oyo, valo, copo, ovo, poso.

With all modern Spanish writers the guttural x is changed into ; as, dijo, dijeron, dijera, produjo, produjeron, instead of dixo, dixeron, dixera, produxo, produxeron. The pronunciation is the same in both cases.

OF THE ADVERB.

Adverbs are either primitive or derivative: the primitive viep-being those which are simple or uncompounded of any other word, such as no, not; ya, already; hoy, to-day; allá, yonder; and the derivative, those that are formed from other words (chiefly adjectives, participles, or other adverbs) by the addition of mente; as, brevemente, confusamente, ciertamente.

più, assai più, still more Via meno, rie méno, assái méno, much less

Più tosto, piuttosto, rather

Of Interrogation.
Quinto, how much
Come, how
Perche no, why not
Perchè. why
Che, what
Quando, when
Dove, where.

SPANIS H.-No. XVII.

LIST OF VERBS WITH IRREGULAR PAST-PARTICIPLES.

SOME verbs of those in the preceding list of irregular verbs, and some which are otherwise regular, have the past participle irregularly formed. The following list contains all these verbs with the irregular participle. Those marked R have also their past participle regularly formed. Thus ingerir, has both ingerto and ingerido

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The Spanish language, like the English, contains numerous terms composed of more than one word, and used adverbially, hence called adverbial phrases; as, por cierto, for certain; por lo comun, in general; de un modo, in such manner.

OF THE CONJUNCTION.

Conjugations are simple; as, y, and; ó, or; que, that; si, if; ni, nor; porque, because; como, as; mas, but; pero, but: or conjunctive phrases; as, con tal de que, provided that; pues que, since; para que, in order that; á fin de que, to the end that.

The conjunction y is changed into é when it comes before a word beginning with i or hi; as, las lenguas Española é Inglesa, the Spanish and English languages; madre é hija, mother and daughter.

word beginning with o; as, lacre ú oblea, sealing wax or The conjunction ó is changed into & when it comes before a

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The definite article is to be used before all common nouns taken in a general sense, and in the whole extent of their signification; as,

El ódio levanta rencillas, hatred excites strife.
La caridad es paciente, charity is patient.
Los hombres son mortales, men are mortal.

Here ódio, caridad, and hombres are taken in a general sense, meaning all hatred, all charity, all men.

If the noun be not taken in a general sense, that is, if the whole of it be not meant, the article is not used; as,

Hace buen tiempo, it is good weather.
Tiene envidia, he-has envy.

Here tiempo and envidia are designed to express only some portion of weather and envy, meaning some good weather, some envy.

The definite article is used before proper names of countries, states, and days of the week; as,

La Francia es un hermoso pais, France is a beautiful country.
Juan volverá el Mártes, John will-return Tuesday.

If the name of the country, state, or region be preceded by a preposition, or take its name from its capital city, the article is generally omitted; as,

as,

María es hermana de Juana, Mary is the sister of Jane.
Pablo es hijo del juez, Paul is the son of-the judge.

The definite article is not used before nouns in apposition;

Pablo, apóstol de los Gentiles, | Ellos pecaron al Señor, esperanza

Paul, the apostle of the
Gentiles.

de sus padres, they sinned against-the Lord, the hope of their fathers.

Sometimes the article is used before nouns in apposition, when employed in a definite or determinative sense; as,

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The definite article is not used before numerical adjectives when they denote order or succession; as,

Tomo segundo, pagina sexto, volume the second, page the sixth.
Enrique octavo, Henry the Eighth.

The cardinal numbers (and not the ordinal) are generally
used when the number expressing the order or succession
exceeds nine; thus, Carlos doce, "Charles the Tenth" (literally
thirteen," and not tomo décimotercio, "volume thirteenth."
"Charles Ten"), and not Cúrlos duodécimo; tomo trece, "volume

The titles of books, essays, chapters or extracts, and the
before them (except when spoken of); as,
names of periodicals, do not generally take the definite article

História de España, the His- Gaceta de Londres, the London
tory of Spain.
Gazette.

The definite article is not used before the word casa (house) when it means home, nor before nouns or adjectives employed adverbially; as,

Venécia daba leyes á los monarcos de Europa, Venice gave laws Está en casa, he is at home (or | En verdad, truly. to the monarchs of Europe.

The definite article is to be used before numerals indicating

the day of the month or the hour of the day; as,

El seis de Enero, the sixth (six) of January.

A las tres de la tarde, at three o'clock in (of) the afternoon. The definite article is used before nouns indicating the rank, office, profession, or titles of persons when they are spoken of (but not when they are addressed); as,

El General Brown es valiente, General Brown is brave.
El Señor De Forest tiene dos hijas, Mr. De Forest has two
daughters.

La Señora Tranor no es prudente, Mrs. Tranor is not prudent. The definite article (and not the indefinite, as in English) is used before nouns signifying a certain weight, measure, size, quantity or number, when preceded by the price; as,

A tres duros la libra, at three | A siete pesos el tomo, at seven dollars a (the) pound.

A dos pesos la vara, at two dollars a (the) yard.

A razon de diez duros el mes, at (the) rate of ten dollars a (the) month.

dollars a (the) volume.

A tres reales la pieza, at three
reals a (the) piece.
A cuatro pesos el par, at four
dollars a (the) pair.

in the house).

En oculto, secretly.

OMISSION OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.

The indefinite article is omitted in some cases in Spanish in which it would not be in English, as in the following cases. When some portion of a thing only is meant, and when the adverb no is used in the sense of "not a" (that is, "not any," or "no"), the indefinite article is not generally used; as,

Tiene calentura, he has a fever. | Ella no tiene marido, she has

Ella tiene idéa de comer, she has

an idea of eating (to eat). Juan hace ruido, John makes a

noise.

El es de génio benigno, he is of a
benign disposition.

not a husband.

Jorge no tiene flauto, George has not a flute.

No tenemos cochero, we-have not a coachman.

No tengo piano, I have not a (no) piano.

In these cases is meant some fever, some idea, some noise, and some portion of a benign disposition; and the article is not used in Spanish.

The indefinite article is not used before two nouns, one of which, being connected by a verb to the other, shows the

nation, relationship, rank, office, profession or vocation of the plural, is used; as algun idea, some idea; alguna caverna, some latter; as,

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its noun; as,

Médio peso, half a dollar.

En tal tiempo, in such a time.

Tan hermosa hija, so beautiful a daughter.

cavern; algunos libros, some books; unas señoras, some ladies. Before a singular noun, denoting something to eat or drink. the word some is expressed in Spanish by un poco de, a little of; as, déme un poco de leche, ive me me some milk.

When in English some or any is used before a singular noun in an interrogative or negative sentence, in Spanish it is usually omitted, especially before nouns meaning something to eat or drink; as, toma vmd. azúcar? do you take any sugar? ¿tiene vmd. tazas? have you any cups? ¿tiene vmd algunos platillos? have you any saucers? no tengo flauta, Ihave not any flute; no tiene hacha, he-has not any axe.

OF THE NOUN.

AUGMENTATIVES, DIMINUTIVES, AND COMMON TITLES OF

RESPECT.

of their signification, by the terminations on, ona, azo, aza, Augmentative nouns are such as are increased, in the extent ote; thus the words daga, dagger: cuchara, spoon; fraile, friar; gato, cat; manga, sleeve; muger, woman; frente, forehead, can be rendered augmentative: as dagon, large dagger; cucharon, large spoon, i.e. a ladle; frailon, large friar; gatazo, large cat; mangote, large sleeve; mugerona, large woman; frentaza, broad forehead.

Diminutive nouns are such as are decreased, in the signification of their primitives, by the terminations ico, ica, ejo, eja, The indefinite article is not used before the words métio, a ito, ita, eto, eta, illo, illa, uelo, uela; thus, fraile, friar; capilla, half; cien or ciento, a hundred; and mil, a thousand; as,

Tres años y médio, three years | Cien hombres, a hundred men. and a half. Dia y médio, a day and a half. The indefinite article is not used after algo, something, or nada, nothing, followed by the preposition de; as,

Pedro tiene algo de poeta, Peter is something of a poet.

OTHER USES AND OMISSIONS OF ARTICLES. The indefinite article can be used before (but not after) tal, "such;" as,

Tenemos un tal Pontifice, we-have a such High-Priest. The infinitive mood, being used in Spanish as a noun with a preposition before it, in the same manner that the present participle is in English, can take the masculine definite article before it; as,

El murmurar de las fuentes, the | Al ver el árbol, on seeing the murmuring of the fountains.

tree.

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María es la mas hermosa de las mugeres, Mary is the most beautiful of the women.

The article is generally to be repeated before nouns which immediately follow each other, especially if they do not agree in gender; as,

La prudencia y el valor del rey, the prudence and the valour of the king.

The learner will find many exceptions to the above rule in the best Spanish writers. The article must always be repeated in such cases when each noun is designed to be emphatic. When the word todo, all, sums up the several nouns, the article is not generally used before any of the nouns; as, Españoles, Franceses, Ingleses, y Americanos, todos son mortales, Spaniards, Frenchmen, Englishmen, and Americans, all are mortal.

The article is omitted in Spanish, as in English, before nouns taken in a partitive sense; as,

El carpintero tiene dinero, the carpenter has money. In the above example, it is meant that the carpenter has a portion of money, or some money. When the word some is to be expressed, alguno in the singular, and algunos or unos in the

chapel; cuchara, spoon; batel, boat, can be rendered diminutive; as, frailecico, frailecito, frailezuelo, a little friar; capilleja, capillita, capilleta, small chapel; cucharica, cucharita, cuchareta, cucharillo, small spoon; batelico, batelejo, batelito, batelillo, little boat. The terminations uelo generally, and illo also sometimes, express contempt; as hombre, man; hombrezuelo or hombrecillo, an insignificant or contemptible little fellow.

Adjectives are also frequently found used in a diminutive sense; as, poco, little; poquillo, poquitico, poquito, very little.

There is also a kind of nouns composed of the name of some instrument or object and one of the terminations azo, aza, ada, the compound word including in its meaning both the instrument and some effect produced by it; as, dardo, a dart, dardada, a blow given with a dart; cuchara, a spoon, cucharazo, a blow with a spoon; pluma, a pen, plumada, a dash or stroke with a pen; mano, the hand, manotazo or manotado, a blow with the hand; aldaba, a knocker, aldabada, a rap with the knocker, and aldabazo, a violent rap with the knocker.

When a noun with a singular termination denotes several persons or things, it is called a collective noun, or noun of multitude; as, turba, a crowd; sacada, a drove of cows.

in English are in Spanish Señor and Don; and those corThe ordinary titles of respect corresponding to Mr. or Esq. responding to Madam and Mrs. are Señora and Doña; and Miss, Señorita. Dox and Doña never take the article before them, and can be used before Christian names only. Señor and Don are often used together before the Christian name. The following examples will show the manner in which these

words are used:

El Señor Blake es Americano,

Mr. Blake is an American.

Don Diego Ticknor, me alegro

mucho de verle, Mr. James Ticknor, I am very glad to see you.

El Señor Ray; La Señora Ray, Mr. Ray; Mrs. Ray.

El Señor Carlos Mason, Master Charles Mason.

La Señorita Mason, Miss Mason. Al Señor Don Diego Harper, to James Harper, Esq.

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The article is never used before these titles, except when the persons are spoken of; of course, when persons are addressed, the proper title only is used; as,

Buenas tardes tenga rmd., Señorita Wilson, I wish you a good evening, Miss Wilson

Señor, señora, señorita, señores, señoras, señoritas, also are used for sir, madam, miss, gentlemen, ladies, young ladies, respectively; as,

Buenos dias, señor, good morn- Buenas noches, señores, good ing, sir. night, gentlemen.

Señor and señora are used as an additional mark of respect before the name of a relative in such cases as the following:

¿ Obmo está su señor hermano? | ¿ Cómo está su señora madre? how is your brother? how is your mother?

OF THE ADJECTIVE.

AGREEMENT AND POSITION OF ADJECTIVES.

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The adjective must always agree in gender and number with Lo escrito, the written, i.e. that Lo malo, the bad, i.e. that the noun to which it belongs; as,

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which is written.

which is bad.

Lo siguente, the following, i.e. that which follows. Adjectives and participial adjectives are much oftener placed after the noun to which they belong than before it; as, Hombre sábio, a wise man.

Participles used as adjectives agree in gender and number Furor poético, poetical fury. with the noun to which they belong; as,

El engañado rey, the deluded | La engañada reina, the deluded king.

queen.

Las engañadas criadas, the deluded female servants.

Guárdia avanzada, advanced guard.

In many cases it is left entirely to the taste of the writer to place the adjective before or after the noun to which it belongs. But cardinal numbers, adjectives expressing some inherent or peculiar property, habit, or practice of the noun to which they belong, and adjecrives employed as particular epithets with a An adjective does not agree with the gender of the title of a proper name, are generally placed before the noun: so likeperson, but with the gender of the person to whom it is ap-wise adjectives accented on the antepenult; as, plied; as,

Su majestad está enferma, his | Su majestad está enferma, her majesty is ill. majesty is ill,

Nada, nothing, requires a masculine adjective; as,

Nada hay limpio, there-is nothing pure.

Two or more nouns in the singular require the adjective which belongs to them to be in the plural, and if the nouns are of different genders, the adjective must be in the masculine;

as,

Juana y María están calladas, | Lucia y Carlos están cansados, Jane and Mary are silent. Lucy and Charles are

tired.

When an adjective comes before or after two or more plural nouns of different genders, it must agree in gender with the noun nearest to it; as,

Buenos diccionários y gramáti- | Diccionários y gramáticas buecas, good dictionaries and nas, good dictionaries and grammars. grammars.

The Spanish Academy recommends that, in cases in which an adjective is to be used with two or more nouns differing in gender and number, it would be better to use a different adjective of similar meaning for every noun, or an adjective which does not change its ending to form its feminine for the plural.

The material of which a thing is made, as well as the country in which it is made or produced, are seldom used as adjectives, but as a noun preceded by the preposition de; thus, Paño de laña, woollen cloth. Cueros de Méjico, Mexican hides.

Hoja de plata, silver leaf. Cerveza de Londres, London beer.

The profession or dignity of a person may be qualified by an adjective derived from the name of a nation preceded by the preposition, as above; thus,

General Mejicano, Mexican ge- | General de España, Spanish neral. general (general of Spain). The title of the chief ruler of a country is not qualified by

Una dulce frescura, a pleasant| La blanca nieve, the white coolness.

snow.

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ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS.

J. W. Cook: Keightley's History of England is as good as any you can get, if you want a comprehensive account of the whole subject. AMATEUR ARTIST: We regret to say we cannot comply with your wishes in the short space that remains.

ONE OF OUR SCHOLARS is respectfully informed that we have no intention of publishing an Italian dictionary at present.

THOMAS DAINES has solved the first thirty-two of the Second Centenary of Algebraical Problems. His solution of No. 29 is correct.

J. B. M. A. had better apply to Mr. Bell. The work on Algebra is not the same as in the P. E. There is no necessity to study both, though it may be advantageous to see different statements of the same principles, and to have additional examples for exercise.

A. C. The following is the solution :-The least common denominator is 19 000. Dividing this by each denominator, we have 1,000, 190 and 19 for the multipliers of the several numerators. Whence the required fractions are 400 and 6.

DAVID BAILEY (Broadlanes); LEO (Liverpool); A. LAIDLOW; RICHARD PEACH (Derby); GEO. JACKSON (London): Title and Index to Vol. V. of Title and Index to Vol. VI. will be printed with No. 156, and covers will be the P. E. may be had through any bookseller; also covers for the same.

prepared for the single and double volumes.

The adjective is sometimes used after the noun in English; as, an account current; the tie matrimonial; life everlasting; a noun common; a verb page thirtieth.

ON PHYSICS, OR NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

No. LXXIII.

(Continued from page 714.)

DYNAMICAL ELECTRICITY.

GENERAL LAWS AND VELOCITY OF ELECTRICAL
CURRENTS.

The Rheostat.-This apparatus serves to increase or diminish the length of the circuit traversed by a current, in such a way as to make it produce a definite amount of deflection in the galvanometer. It is the invention of Wollaston, and consists of two parallel cylinders, one A of brass, and the other в of wood, fig. 479. The wooden one has a wooden groove all

Fig. 479.

along, and terminates at a in a couper ring, to which is attached the end of a brass wire. This wire, which is 150 feet long, is wound more or less in the groove, and passes over to the cylinder A, and after being rolled many times round A, is fastened at its extremity e. Lastly, of the two adjusting screws n and o, which keep the conductors of the current that we wish to observe fixed, one is connected by means of a strip of steel with the copper cylinder A, and the other with the ring a. When a current enters at o, it traverses only that part of the wire wound round the cylinder B, in which the spirals are isolated by the groove, but when once it has reached the cylinder A, which is metallic and in contact with the wire, the current passes from m to n. Consequently, if we wish to increase the length of the circuit, we have only to turn the winch d from right to left. If, on the contrary, we wish to diminish it, we put the winch upon the axis e, and then, turning it from left to right, wind the wire upon the cylinder A. We may thus diminish or increase the intensity of the current at pleasure, for, as will be shown presently, this intensity is in inverse proportion to the length of the circuit. With regard to the length of the circuit, it is indicated by two needles which are not visible in the figure, but are moved by the cylinders A and B when they turn together.

angle of deflection of the needle. Consequently, the angle of deflection being known, and therefore also its sine, the intensity of the current may be deduced.

Laws of the Intensity of Currents.-Currents of the same intensity are those which in the same circumstances produce the same deflection in the same magnetised needle. A great many philosophers-among whom Messrs. Ohm, Pouillet, Faraday, Fechner, and De la Rive may be particularly mentioned-have endeavoured to compare the intensities of electrical currents arising from different sources. These researches, which have been carried on by means of the galvanometer, the sine compass, and the rheostat, have led to the establishment of the same laws for thermo-electrical currents as for hydro-electrical currents. Only in the case of the former we neglect the directive influence of the battery, because, being metallic and of small dimensions, its resistance may be disregarded. But this is not the case with hydro-electrical currents, in reference to which it is necessary to take into account the resistance of the battery. M. Pouillet accomplishes this object by adding to the length of the interpolated wire, that length of wire which by its resistance would produce upon the current the same diminution of the intensity as the battery itself produces by its feeble conductibility. The circuit being entirely metallic, which is then supposed to be traversed by the current, is called by M. Pouillet the reduced current.

The following are the different laws observed by electrical currents, whatever be the nature of the source from which they are derived.

1. The intensity of a current is directly proportional to the sum of the electro-motive forces which are in operation in the circuit; understanding by electro-motive force the cause, whatever it may be, which produces a liberation of dynamical electricity.

2. The intensity is the same at all points of the circuit. 3. The intensity is in inverse proportion to the reduced length of all the parts of the circuit.

4. The intensity is in direct proportion to the thickness and conductibility of the wire along which the current passes. It follows from the last two laws, that the intensity remains the same when the thickness of the wire is always in the same ratio to its length.

M. Pouillet found that in liquids, as well as solids, the intensity of the current is in direct proportion to the thickness of the liquid column along which the current passes, and in inverse proportion to its length, provided the length is at least five or six times that of the diameter of the column.

Conductibility of Hydro-Electrical Currents.-The conducting power of bodies in reference to hydro-electrical currents varies with the force of the currents, and with the different conductors which the currents have already passed through. Indeed, M. De la Rive has discovered that currents pass through metallic plates and liquids with greater ease in proportion to the number through which they have already passed.

By means of the voltameter, Sir Humphrey Davy found that the conductibility of the same metal is directly proportional to the thickness of the wire and inversely proportional to its length. M. Becquerel has verified the truth of this law by means of a galvanometer with two wires. With regard to the electric conductibility of different metals, M. Ed. Becquerel found that at freezing point their relative conducting powers may be represented by the following numbers:-Silver, 100; copper, 915; gold, 64.9; zinc, 24; tin, 14; iron, 123; lead, 8.3;

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liquids, and taking that of distilled water as unity, M. Pouillet arrived at the following results :-Water containing 2000 of nitric acid, 6; water saturated with sulphate of zinc, 167; water saturated with sulphate of copper, 400. With regard to the ratio between the conductibility of metals and that of liquids, the latter is much more feeble, for, according to M. Pouillet, copper conducts sixteen million times better than saturated solution of sulphate of copper, which is six thousand four hundred million times better than distilled water.

The Sine Compass is a galvanometer intended to measure the intensity of currents, without having recourse to a table of graduation. This apparatus, which was invented by M. Pouil-platinum, 7.9; mercury, 1.739. let, differs from the galvanometer described in a previous On comparing together the conducting powers of different lesson in several respects. In the first place, the copper wire along which the current passes is wound only a very few times round the magnetised needle, sometimes only once. Further, the dial, about which the wire is wound, is moveable about a vertical axis upon a fixed horizontal circle, which serves to indicate the displacement of the dial. The galvanometrical circuit being placed in the magnetic meridian, and consequently in the same plane as the needle, the current is passed. The needle being deflected, turn the circuit till it coincides with the vertical plane passing through the magnetised needle. At this moment, the directive action of the current being exerted perpendicularly to the direction of the magnetised needle, it is demonstrated by mathematical investigation that the intensity of the current is proportional to the sine of the

VOL. V.

Lastly, it has been found that the elevation of the temperature increases the conducting power of liquids, while the contrary takes place with solids.

Velocity of Electricity.-Numerous attempts have been made to determine the velocity of the propagation of electricity along

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