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the church exclusively; but you must look for one who has mens sana in corporo sano'—a healthful mind in a healthful body. The being in whom you find this union, is the only one worthy to be called educated. To make all men such is the object of education."

We have dwelt thus fully on this subject, because it is so obvious that egregious mistakes are made in education. How many there are who are called "good scholars" in our schools of whom we hear nothing after they go forth into the world. Their good scholarship consists in that which gives them no impulse to go on to greater attainments by themselves. Their learning is either that of reception-as the sponge takes in water-or that of mere memory. Their education is not discipline; it kindles none of those desires which nothing but further progress can satisfy; it imparts none of that self-reliance which nothing but impossibilities can ever subdue. While these are pointed out by their teachers as the ornaments of their schools, there are others known as the heavy, dull, "poor scholars," in no way distinguished but by their stupidity, of whom no hopes are entertained, because of them nothing is expected,-who in after-life fairly outstrip their fellows and strangely astonish their teachers. Almost every teacher of fifteen years' experience has noticed this. Now why is it so? There must have been somehow in such cases a gross misjudgment of character. Either those pupils who promised so much by their quickness were educated wrong, and perhaps educated too much, while their teachers unwittingly and unintentionally educated their less distinguished companions far more judiciously; or else nature in such cases must be said to have been playing such odd pranks that legitimate causes could not produce their legitimate effects. We must charge nature as being extremely capricious, or we must allege that the teachers entirely misunderstood their work, failing where they expected most, and succeeding as if by chance-almost against their will-where they expected least. We incline to the latter alternative; and hence we infer that there is such a thing as teaching a mind naturally active too much—exciting it too much,-so that it will prematurely exhaust its energies and gladly settle back into almost imbecility; and that there is such a thing as leaving the mind so much to its own resources, that without dazzling the beholder like the flash of the meteor when it glares upon the startled vision, it may be silently gathering materials to support the more enduring light of the morning star, which anon will arise in majesty and glory.

It will be well for our youth when our teachers shall so understand human nature, and so comprehend the science and the art of education, that these mistakes shall seldom occur; and when he who tills the nobler soil of the mind shall, with as much faith and as much certainty as he who tills the literal field, rely upon the fulfilment of heaven's unchangeable law: "Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap."

RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING.

From what has been said of education, it is very obvious that it is no small thing to be a successful teacher. It is admitted by all that the teacher should be APT TO TEACH. He cannot be useful without this. He may have an unimpeachable character; he may have the most liberal and thorough literary acquirements; he may deeply feel his responsibility, and yet after all he may fail to teach successfully,

Aptness to teach has been said to be a native endowment, a sort of instinct, and therefore incapable of being improved by experience or instruction-an instinct such as that which guides the robin, though hatched in an oven, to build a perfect nest like that of its parent, without ever having seen one. We are of opinion that such instincts in men are rare; but that aptness to teach, like aptness to do anything else, is usually an acquired power, based upon a correct knowledge of what is to be done, and some accurate estimate of the fitness of the means used for the end. If there are exceptions to this, they are very uncommon; and the safer way, therefore, for the majority of teachers is, to study carefully the rationale of their processes, and to rely rather upon sound and philosophical principles in their teaching, than upon a very doubtful intuition.

degree of assistance which the young scholar needs in the pursuit of learning. There are a few who forget the difficulties which impeded their own perception of new truths when learners, and therefore have no sympathy with the perplexities which surround the children under their charge when they encounter like difficulties. They refuse to lend a helping hand even where it is needed, and by making light of the child's doubts, perhaps sneering at his unsuccessful struggles, they dishearten him so far that imaginary obstacles become insurmountable, and he gives up in despair. But a far more numerous class tend towards the other extreme. From a mistaken kindness, or a mistaken estimate of the child's ability, or both, they are disposed to do quite too much for him, and thus they diminish his power to help himself. The child that is constantly dandled upon the lap of its nurse, and borne in her arms to whatever point it may desire to go, does not soon learn to walk; and when it at length makes the attempt, it moves not with the firm tread of him who was early taught to use his own limbs. There is a great deal of literary dandling practised in our schools; and as a consequence, a great many of our children are mere sickly nurselings, relying upon leading strings while in the school, and falling for very weakness just as soon as the supporting hand is withdrawn. This evil is so common, and in some instances so monstrous, that we shall be pardoned if we dwell upon it a little more fully.

In illustrating this subject, we must mention two processes of teaching, not indeed exactly opposite to each other, though widely different,-into one or both of which many of our teachers are very liable to fall. We shall, for the sake of a name, designate the former as the

POURING-IN PROCESS.

This consists in lecturing to a class of children upon every subject which occurs to the teacher, it being his chief aim to It is as if he should provide himself with a basket of sweetbring before them as many facts in a limited time as possible meats, and every time he should come within reach of a child, the condition of his stomach-whatever trash he should hapshould seize him, and compel him to swallow-regardless of pen first to force into his mouth. Children are indeed fond of sweetmeats, but they do not like to have them administered, and every physiologist knows there is such a thing as eating enough even of an agreeable thing to make one sick, and thus produce a loathing for ever after. Now, many teachers are just such misguided caterers for the mind. They are ready to seize upon the victims of their kindness, force open their mental gullets, and pour in, without mercy and without discretion, whatever sweet thing they may have at hand, even though they surfeit and nauseate the poor sufferer. The mind, by this process, becomes a mere passive recipient, taking in without much resistance whatever is presented till it is

full.

"A passive recipient!" said one to his friend, "what is a passive recipient?" "A passive recipient," replied his friend, "is a two-gallon jug. It holds just two gallons, and as it is made of potter's ware, it can never hold but just two gallons." This is not an unfit illustration of what we mean by making the mind a passive recipient. Whenever the teacher does not first excite inquiry, first prepare the mind by waking it up to a desire to know, and if possible to find out by itself, but proceeds to think for the child, and to give him the results, before they are desired, or before they have been sought for,-he makes the mind of the child a two-gallon jug, into which he may pour just two gallons, but no more. And if day after day he should continue to pour in, day after day he may expect that what he pours in will all run over. The mind, so far as retention is concerned, will act like the jug; that is, a part of what is poured in to-day, will be diluted by a part of that which is forced in to-morrow, and that again will be partially displaced and partially mingled with the next day's pouring, till at length there will be nothing characteristic left. But aside from retention, there is a great difference between the jug and the mind. The former is inert material, and may be as good ajug after such use as before. But the mind suffers by every unsuccessful effort to retain.

This process of lecturing children into imbecility is altogether too frequently practised; and it is to be hoped that intelligent teachers will pause and inquire before they pursue

One of the most common errors into which young teachers fall (and some old ones too), is that misjudging of the l it further.

ON PHYSICS, OR NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

No. LXXV.

(Continued from page 747.)

METEOROLOGY.

Object of Meteorology.-The name of meteors is applied to the phenomena produced in the atmosphere, and that of meteorology to the branch of natural philosophy which has for its object the study of meteors.

Meteors are divided into aerial-such as winds and tempests; aqueous or watery -comprehending fogs, clouds, rain, dew, snow, and hail; and luminous, as lightning, the rainbow, and the aurora-borealis or northern lights.

AERIAL METEORS.

Direction and Velocity of the Winds.-Winds are currents in the atmosphere, varying greatly in direction and velocity. Although they blow in all directions, there are eight principal directions, the north, north-east, east, south-east, south, southwest, west and north-west.

The direction of the wind is indicated by weathercocks, and its velocity by the anemometer, or wind-measurer. This latter is a sort of windmill, from the number of revolutions of which in a given time, the velocity of the wind is deduced. Causes of Winds.- Winds are caused by a disturbance of the

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2. Periodical Winds are those which blow regularly in the same direction at the same seasons of the year or the same breeze. The name of monsoon is applied to winds which blow hours of the day; such as the monsoon, the simoom, and the for six months in one direction and six months in another They are principally observed in the Arabian Sea, the Arabian Gulf, the Bay of Bengal, and the China Sea. These winds blow towards the mainland in summer, and in the contrary direction in winter.

The simoom is a burning wind which blows in the deserts of Asia and Africa, and which is characterised by its high temperature and the sand which it raises in the air and carries along with it. When this wind blows, the air is darkened, the skin is dried, respiration is shortened, and extreme thirst is experienced.

This wind is known by the name of sirocco in Italy and Algiers, where it blows from the great desert of Sahara. It bears the name of shamsin in Egypt, where it is experienced from the end of April till June. To guard against the effects Fig. 487.

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equilibrium in some part of the atmosphere, a disturbance always resulting from a difference in the temperatures of two neighbouring countries. For example, if the temperature of the earth is raised over a certain extent of surface, the air in contact with it becomes heated, expands, and rises to the upper regions of the atmosphere, where it spreads, causing winds which blow from warm countries to cold ones. Further, the equilibrium being at the same time destroyed at the level of the ground by the excess of weight in the upper strata of the atmosphere, the air is there displaced, and currents are consequently produced in a direction contrary to that of the winds above-mentioned.

Regular, Periodical, and Variable Winds.-According to the greater or less constancy of winds they are classified under three great divisions: regular, periodical, and irregular, or variable winds.

1. The name of regular winds is applied to those which blow all the year in nearly the same direction. These winds, which are also known under the name of trade winds, are observed at distance from land, blowing from north-east to south-west

VOL. V.

of too rapid a cutaneous evaporation occasioned by this wind
the natives of Africa cover their bodies with grease

sea towards land during the day, and from the land towards
The breeze is a wind which blows at the sea-coast, from the
the sea during the night; that is to say, from the warmest
short distances from the coast.
quarter in each case. Sea and land breezes are only felt at
the tropics, less so in our latitude, and traces of them are
Breezes are regular between
observable even on the coasts of Greenland. The neighbour-
hood of mountains also gives rise to periodical day-breezes.

3. Changeable Winds are those which blow sometimes in one direction and sometimes in another, without our being able to ascertain the law to which they are subject. In temperate climates the direction of the winds is very variable, the irregu larity increases as we advance nearer the poles, and at the north pole the winds sometimes blow from several points of the compass at once. On the contrary, as we approach the torrid zone, they become more regular. The south-west wind prevails most in England, Germany and the north of France.

153

762

In the south of France the direction inclines more to the north,
and in Spain and Italy the north wind prevails most.
Water-spouts are masses of vapour in suspension in the lower
strata of the atmosphere, and subject to a rotatory motion
which is rapid enough to root up trees, overthrow houses, and
break and destroy everything they encounter.

opinion, and maintains that the ascending currents of warm air suffice to raise the vesicular vapours, just as winds raise dust, sand, and all light bodies. According to this philosopher, clouds are not generally immovable, as they appear, in a vertical direction. More frequently they descend slowly, but the lower part of them is continually dispersed in the warmer strata that they pass through, while the upper part incessantly receives additions of fresh vesicles, which accounts for their apparent immovability.

These meteors are generally accompanied by hail and rain, often give out flashes of light, and make a noise like that of a cart upon a stony road. Many of these water-spouts have no Rain is the fall, in drops, of the water proceeding from the rotatory motion, and about one-fourth of those that have been vesicles of the clouds when they are liquefied by the lowering observed have arisen in a calm state of the atmosphere. Water-spouts are observed at sea as well as upon land, and of the temperature. If in its descent the rain passes through a The dry atmosphere, the drops tend to evaporation, and less rain the phenomenon then presents a remarkable aspect. waters of the sea are violently agitated and rise in the form of falls upon the ground than at a certain height above it. This a cone, while the clouds descend in the shape of a cone reversed, is observed at the observatory in Paris, where the quantity of rain which falls in the court is greater than on the terrace. and the two cones are joined at their points so as to form a continuous column from the sea to the clouds, fig. 487. In the open sea, however, the water of the water-spout is never salt, which proves that they are principally formed of condensed vapours, and not of sea-water raised by suction.

The origin of water-spouts is not known. M. Komtz considers that they are chiefly produced by two contrary winds passing by the side of each other, or by a very brisk wind in the upper regions of the atmosphere. Peltier and many other philosophers attribute them to an electric cause.

AQUEOUS METEORS.

Fogs.-These are masses of vapour which, being condensed in the atmosphere in a vesicular state, occupy its lower regions and destroy its transparency.

Fogs are formed when the moist ground is warmer than the air. The vapours which ascend are then condensed and become visible. It is necessary, however, that the air should reach the point of saturation, or the state in which it ceases to be capable of retaining vapour in an uncondensed form; otherwise condensation does not take place. Fogs may also take place when a current of warm moist air passes over a river, the temperature of which is lower, for the air being then cooled, condensation of the vapours takes place immediately.

Clouds are also collections of vapours in a vesicular state, as well as fogs, from which they differ only in occupying the higher regions of the atmosphere. They always result from the condensation of the vapours which rise from the earth. According to the appearances which they present, clouds are divided into four principal species, severally named, cirri, cumuli, strati, and nimbi.

Cirri are small bluish clouds presenting the appearance of loose threads, like carded wool. They are the highest clouds, and on account of the low temperature of the regions they occupy, are considered to be formed of frozen particles or flakes of snow. Their appearance often precedes a change of weather.

Cumuli are clouds rounded off and presenting the appearance They are more of mountains piled one upon the other. frequent in summer than in winter, and, after being formed in the morning, are generally dispersed in the evening. If, on the contrary, they become more numerous, and especially if they are surmounted by cirri, rain or storms may be expected. Strati are horizontal cloudy layers, very large and unbroken, which are formed at sun-set, and are dispersed at sun-rise. They are lower than the preceding species.

Lastly, nimbi, or rain-clouds, are clouds which do not appear in any particular form, but are distinguished only by a uniform grey colour and fringed borders.

The height of the clouds is very variable, the average being from four to five thousand feet. But it is often much greater. Gay Lussac, in a balloon ascent, at a height of about twentytwo thousand feet from the level of the sea, observed ciri above him which appeared at a considerable height from him, M. d'Abbadie observed in Ethiopia stormy clouds which were not more than about six hundred and seventy feet from the ground.

To explain the suspension of clouds in the atmosphere, the vesicles of which they are formed have been compared to so many small balloons full of air warmer than the surrounding atmosphere, and produced by the absorption of the sun's

heat.

M. Koemtz. in his treatise on meteorology, refutes this

The quantity of rain which falls annually in any place is measured by means of an apparatus called the pluviometer (rainmeasurer) or udometer (moisture-measurer). It is a cylindrical vessel, the upper cover of which, in the shape of a reversed cone, has a small hole at the apex, so as to allow the rainwater to go through, but to prevent evaporation as much as possible. A glass tube at the side connected with the interior enables one to see the level of the water in the vessel, and a graduated scale shows the height. This apparatus being put in an open place, if at the end of a month, for example, the height of the water is two inches, this shows that in the vessel the water has reached that height, and consequently that, if evaporation or filtration, there would be a depth of two inches. the rain that has fallen were spread over the ground without

A great number of local circumstances may cause a variation in the quantity of rain which falls in different countries, but, all other things being equal, it is in warm countries, and in warm seasons, that most rain is to be expected

BIOGRAPH Y.-No. XXVI.

CATHARINE MARIA SEDGWICK. MISS SEDGWICK was born in Stockbridge, Massachusetts. Her father, the Hon. Theodore Sedgwick, a citizen of high reputation, was at one time Speaker of the House of Representatives, afterwards senator in Congress, and, at the time of his death, filled the office of judge of the supreme court of his state. Miss Sedgwick's first book, the "New England Tale," appeared in 1822. It was originally written for a religious tract; but as it gradually expanded into a work too large for such a purpose, she was prevailed on, with much difficulty, by her friends, to give it to the world in its present form. It was received with such favour, that in 1827 the authoress was induced to publish her second work, a novel in two volumes, entitled "Redwood." This work met with great success, and was republished in England and translated into French and Italian. One of the characters in the book, Miss Debby Lennox, bears the stamp both of originality and truthfulness, and if it stood alone, would prove not only the extensive observation, but the great powers of invention possessed by its delineator. Miss Sedgwick's next work was "Hope Leslie, or Early Times in America," a novel in two volumes, published in 1827. This has continued to be her most popular tale; and, indeed, no novel written by an American, except, cess. The character of the heroine is a lovely embodiment of perhaps, the early works of Cooper, ever met with such sucwomanhood with all its ideal perfections, and yet with a few natural weaknesses which only render her the more life-like and interesting. The Indian girl, Magawisca, seems to be more a being of the imagination; too high-souled and lofty, In 1830, Clarence, a Tale of our own Times," as well as too refined, to be a true type of the race from which she sprung. appeared; in 1832, "Le Bossu," one of the Tales of Glauber Spa; and in 1835, "The Linwoods, or Sixty Years Since, in America." During the same year she collected in one volume the shorter tales which had appeared in different periodicals; and in 1836 she published her popular story of "The Poor Rich Man and the Rich Poor Man" in 1837, "Live and Let Live;" in 1838, "Means and Ends, or Self-Training;" and afterwards, "A Love Token for Children," and "Stories for

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Young Persons." In 1840 she published her "Letters from Abroad to Kindred at Home," in two volumes; and not long after, a "Life of Lucretia M. Davidson." She has also been a frequent contributor to annuals and periodicals. For the Lady's Book she wrote her thrilling novel, “Wilton Harvey.' In the same magazine was published "A Huguenot Family," "Scenes from Life in Town," "Fanny Mc Dermot," etc. A writer in the National Portrait Gallery thus truly estimates the characteristics of her genius :

there are no fixed classes; the poor family of this generation is the rich family of the next; and more than that, the poor of to-day are the rich of to-morrow, and the rich of to-day the poor of to-morrow. The prizes are open to all, and they fall "without favour. Our rich people, too, are, many of them, among the very best persons in society. I know some such: there is Mr. Beckwith; he has ten talents, and a faithful steward is he; he and his whole family are an honour and blessing to their country; doing in every way all the good they can. Such a rich man as Morris Finley I despise, or rather pity, as much as you or any man can; but pray do not let us envy him his riches; they are something quite independent of himself; and can a man be really poorer than he is?-a poor mind, a poor heart-that is the poverty to shun. As to rich men being at their ease, Miner, every acquisition brings a new want a new responsibility."

"It is evident that Miss Sedgwick's mind inclines towards cheerful views of life. There seems to be implanted in her heart a love of goodness and of the beautiful, which turns as naturally towards serenity and joy, as flowers turn towards the sun. It is manifest that though possessing great refinement herself, her sympathies are not confined to a coterie or class, but that they are called forth by every manifestation of virtue, even in the most humble circumstances, and that she looks with kind regard upon those gleams of a better nature which occasionally break forth amid prevailing clouds and darkness.

"But, Aikin, Aikin; now, candidly, would you not be willing to take their wants and responsibilities with their purses ?"

"I cannot say, Miner; money is the representative of power-the means of extended usefulness; and we all have dreams of the wonderful good we should do if we had these means in our hands. But this I do know-that, till we are conscious of employing, and employing well, the means we have, we ought not to crave more. But let us look at the matter in the right point of view. We are all children of one family; all are to live here a few years; some in one station, and some in another. We are all of us, from the highest to the lowest, labourers in our Father's field; and as we sow, so shall we reap. If we labour rightly, those words of truth and immense import will sound in our ears like a promise, and not like a threat. We shall work at our posts like faithful children, not like tasked slaves; and shall be sure of the riches that perish not in the using. As to all other riches, it is not worth our while to covet or envy them; except in some rare cases, we have all, in this country, gifts and means enough." THE POOR RICH MAN'S BLESSINGS,

"She affects no indifference to the accidental advantages of condition. It would be impossible to diminish her interest in the powers and fascinations of genius and imagination, and she thinks it no duty to attempt it. But her highest favour and affection are reserved for that enduring virtue which is perfected through much trial and tribulation, and which needs no earthly witness or outward reward. She delights to see the 'signet of hope upon the brow of infancy; but she remembers with more satisfaction the last smile of unfaltering faith and love, which even death itself spares for a season. "It is impossible to speak of her works without a particular regard to their moral and religious character. We know no writer of the class to which she belongs who has done more to inculcate just religious sentiments. They are never obtruded, nor are they ever suppressed. It is not the religion of observances, nor of professions, nor of articles of faith, but of the heart and life. It always comes forth; not as something said or done from a sense of necessity or duty, but as part of the character, and inseparable from its strength, as "I had a good education. I do not mean as to learning; well as from its grace and beauty. It is a union of that faith that is only one part of it; I was taught to use my faculties. which works by love with that charity which never faileth. But, first and best of all, I early learned to seek the favour of "There is another characteristic of Miss Sedgwick's writings God and the approval of conscience. I have always had a which should not be overlooked. We allude to their great cheerful home, a clean room to come to, clean children, and a good sense and practical discretion; the notableness which nice wife. Your mother has performed her duties, great and they evince and recommend. This is so true, that we recol-small. As to the small, she never has failed a day since we lect having heard a zealous utilitarian declare, after reading were married to put on her t'other gown at evening, and a one of her works, that political economy might be taught to the greatest advantage through the medium of romances." Her style is peculiarly good; equally free from stiffness and negligence, it is more distinguished by delicacy and grace than strength, and the purity of her English may afford a

model to some of our learned scholars.

clean cap with a riband bow, most always of blue, the colour she knows I like best. Her trade has helped us through for I know if I were taken from you, she could and would many a hard-rubbing day, and it has given me peace of mind; support you without running to any widows' societies or

assistant societies."

HIS ADVICE TO HIS CHILDREN.

"Observe for yourselves, my children; and don't trust to what others tell you. If you make good use of your bodily eyes and the eyes of your mind, you will see that Providence has bound the rich and the poor by one chain. Their interests are the same; the prosperity of one is the prosperity of all. The fountains are with the rich, but they are no better than a stagnant pool till they flow in streams to the labouring people. ment and rich rewards for our labour. We are dependent on them, but they are quite as dependent on us. If there were none of these hateful rich people, who, think you, would build hospitals and provide asylums for orphans, and for the deaf and dumb, and the blind?"

Miss Sedgwick is evidently an ardent admirer of nature, and excels in describing natural scenery. She has also great powers both of invention and imagination, and delineates character with wonderful skill. Her children are, to a certain point, beautifully and naturally described; but there are in the mind of this writer two antagonistic principles-the usefully practical, and the sentimentally romantic. This is by no means uncommon with delicate and refined minds; they like to deviate into regions beyond the every-day world, yet sense and circumstances recall them to common truths; hence arise little discrepancies which mar in some degree the natu-The enterprise and success of the merchant give us employralness of the delineations. Miss Edgeworth is almost the only writer of children's books who has entirely avoided this fault; but it is difficult to arrive at this excellence, and it is no disparagement to Miss Sedgwick to say she has not attained it. With every abatement that can be made, Miss Sedgwick remains among the front rank of those earnest and sincere writers whose talents have been employed for the purpose of doing good, and whose works have obtained a great and deserved popularity. Her books have, almost without exception, been reprinted and favourably received in England.

MR. AIKIN'S PHILOSOPHY.

"I must say, I think there is a useless and senseless outcry against rich men. It comes from the ignorant, unobserving, and unreflecting. We must remember that in our country

HIS REMARKS ON MANNERS.

"Manners, for the most part, are only the signs of quali ties. If a child has a kind and gentle disposition, he will have the outward sign; if he have the principle that teaches him to maintain his own rights and not encroach on those of others, he will have dignity and deference, which I take to be qualities of the best manners. As to forms of expression, they are easily taught; this I call women's work. They are naturally more mannerly than we,

"You say, Harry,' interposed Mrs. Aikin, that it is 3. women's work to teach manners to the children; but don't you think they learn them mostly from example?'

"Certainly I do; manners as well as everything else. 4. Man is called an imitative animal. You can tell by the actions of a child a year old what sort of people it has lived with. If parents are civil and kind to one another, if children never hear from them profane or coarse language, they 1. will as naturally grow up well-behaved, as that candle took the form of the mould it was run in.'

LESSONS IN GREEK.-No. LXI.

BY J. R. BEard, D.D.

SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITIONS.

μera, with the genitive, with (denoting community); with. the accusative, after (Latin, post). The poets connect pera also with the dative in the signification of among. nep, with the genitive, over, for; with the accusative, over..

Prepositions with Three Cases.

aμpi, around (denoting presence on two sides); with the genitive, around, for the sake of; with the dative (only in the poets), around (in space), for the sake of; with the accusative, around, about (of time).

2. Tepi, around (denoting presence on all sides); with the genitive, used of surroundings in space, only by the poets; in prose it appears only with a causal import, in regard to, concerning (Latin, de), on account of; by, only in phrases, as Tepi Toλov, by much: often it is not represented by any English term, as περι πλείστου motiovai, to esteem very highly equivalent nearly to our "to make much of;" with the dative, around (of space), for the sake of, for; with the accusative, around, in respect of.

THE prepositions may be considered as originally adverbs of
place, which, serving for the general description of local rela-
tions, had their force made more exact and definite by the aid
of the several eases. The relations of space were easily trans-3.
ferred, first to time and then to the reciprocal relations of the
qualities of objects; for all these relations are connected
together as causes and consequences. Accordingly, the pre-
positions take to themselves certain cases, in order to mark or
individualise the relations of place, of time, and of cause, the
general notion of which is conveyed in the several forms of
inflexion.

In the more ancient specimens of the language yet extant, several prepositions, e.g. ev, et, and repi, are used as adverbs; and in the Attic προς, as in προς δε, retains this adverbial force. Prepositions have, too, an adverbial force when they stand in combination with verbs. Accordingly the preposition or adverb may be separated, and stand, as in English, apart from the verb. This separation bears the grammatical name of tmesis, or cutting.

Prepositions are commonly said to govern certain cases, as if prepositions determined the import of the cases; whereas it would be more correct to say that the cases define and limit 4.

the meaning of the prepositions.

Prepositions in connexion with an accusative show the direction, aim, and end of an action. In union with the dative, prepositions indicate duration in place or time, connexion and community, dependence and condition. In alliance with the genitive, prepositions denote a local and temporal direction 5. from a certain point, distance from a source, the origin or means of an action.

By virtue of their essential signification, prepositions, in union 6. with their cases, denote, some only one of the general ideas above indicated, others two, and others all the three. Accordingly, prepositions may be divided into such as are found with one case, such as are found with two cases, and such as are found with three cases.

Prepositions with One Case.

1. With the accusative: aç or eg, into, in, on, toward, against,
at; ava, up (denoting the higher point, while & de-
notes the stopping point), over, yonder; wc, to, toward.
In epic and lyric poetry ava is connected also with the
dative.

2. With the dative: ev, in; on, at, among; σvv, sometimes
written Lov, with (denoting connexion and union).
3. With the genitive: avri, opposite; over against, instead of,
for; ano (Latin, ab), from; ex or ε (Latin, ex), ut of;
from, after; po, before; for; avev, without; iveka, on
account of; xapiv, for the sake of; axpi, up to; μEXPL,
up to.

Prepositions with Two Cases.

1. dia, with the genitive, through (of extent in space and time as well as of the means), in withdrawing or keeping apart; with the accusative, on account of (denoting the occasion), for the sake of.

2. Kara, with the genitive, down (the opposite of ava) from, upon, against; with the accusative, on, at, near, by the síde of, according to (Latin, secundum).

ET, on (denoting the point on which an object rests); with. the genitive, of space, on, upon, in the point of support; of time, during. With the dative, when used of space, it has the same meaning as in connexion with the genitive, only that with the dative the object on which any thing supports itself, is conceived of as more concrete, more of a point, while extension is rather implied with the genitive. Moreover, ε, with the dative, denotes the object to which a predicate attaches itself; the object on which anything rests, in whose power anything is; the object with which another associates. itself, or which another follows. Thus it means to, in addition to, besides, in behalf of, on condition of, in the power of; with the accusative, of space, on, denoting motion toward a resting place or point of support; in relation to (assigning the object), against; towards (assigning the aim or end), for, up to, after; to indicate extension in space and time, over, hence.

Tapa, by the side of, with; with the genitive, away from;

with the dative, at; with the accusative, near, along side, extending alongside, as two parallel lines do; in comparison with, together with, over against, against (hostilely), besides, beyond.

pos, denoting proximity, near; with the genitive, on the side of, on behalf of, for; with the dative, at; with the accusative, at, near, towards, in relation to.

vño, under; with the genitive, of space, under, as in the power of; with a causal import, under the influence or operation of, by, from; with the dative, of space, in, among; to denote subordination, under; with the accusative, under, towards (intimating subordination, endeavour, attaining).

The primitive or fundamental meaning is in each case printed in italics. The secondary or derivative meanings are so many applications of the primitive or essential signification. The etymological deduction of the one from the other is not in all. cases clear to the untrained eye, the rather because the relations of thought to each other and to time and place, were conceived of somewhat differently by the Greek to what they are by us. On a knowledge, however, of these and other particles, the shades of meaning in which are sometimes very with the Greek language. Such a knowledge may be greatly delicate, depends, to no small extent, an exact acquaintance promoted by a good lexicon, but can be fully obtained only by a minute and constant familiarity with the best Greek writers. In the summary just given, nothing more than the general outlines could be laid down. I may, however, subjoin a few remarks on some peculiarities in the Greek usage of the prepositions.

In regard to relations of space I must first say something. The place reached the Greeks often set forth as one where you find yourself, inasmuch as they view the result rather than the progress of a movement. Accordingly, verbs of motion are often construed with the dative in cases where the accusative would appear to be proper. This fact is exemplified with verbs signifying to place. to set. to lay, to bring to as, to

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